{"id":31774882,"date":"2026-11-08T11:06:55","date_gmt":"2026-11-08T10:06:55","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/migflug.com\/afterburner\/mountain-flying-basics-density-altitude-mountain-wave-rotor-canyon-turn\/"},"modified":"2026-11-08T11:15:25","modified_gmt":"2026-11-08T10:15:25","slug":"mountain-flying-basics-density-altitude-mountain-wave-rotor-canyon-turn","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/migflug.com\/afterburner\/fr\/mountain-flying-basics-density-altitude-mountain-wave-rotor-canyon-turn\/","title":{"rendered":"Mountain Flying Basics: Density Altitude, Waves and Canyon Turns"},"content":{"rendered":"<style>.et_pb_title_container h1.entry-title { padding-top: 40px !important; }<\/style>\r\n<!-- mfsh:top -->\r\n\r\n<style>\r\n.mfsh-trigger{display:inline-flex;align-items:center;gap:10px;height:44px;padding:0 18px;margin:0 0 26px;border:2px solid 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Then the vertical speed indicator swings past 1,000 feet per minute down, full power changes nothing, and the ridge stops looking low. No storm, no warning cloud. Just wind pouring over a mountain.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<p>Mountain flying punishes habits learned over flat country. The aeroplane performs worse, the wind behaves differently, the forced-landing fields disappear and the valley that looked wide enough to turn in is suddenly not. None of this is mysterious, though. The FAA spells out the hazards and the countermeasures in plain language.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<p>Here are the four basics every lowland pilot should understand before heading for the hills: density altitude, mountain waves, rotors, and the two manoeuvres that keep you out of trouble, the 45-degree ridge crossing and the canyon turn.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n<div style=\"background:#f4f6f9;border:1px solid #e2e7ee;padding:18px 22px;margin:22px 0 26px\"><p style=\"margin:0 0 8px;font-weight:700;color:#0d1117\">Quick Facts<\/p><ul style=\"margin:0;padding-left:18px\"><li style=\"margin:4px 0\"><strong>Density altitude:<\/strong> Thin, hot air cuts engine power, propeller efficiency and climb; take-off runs roughly double from sea level to 5,000 ft (AIM)<\/li><li style=\"margin:4px 0\"><strong>Landing high:<\/strong> Same indicated airspeed, higher true airspeed, longer landing roll<\/li><li style=\"margin:4px 0\"><strong>Mountain wave:<\/strong> Forms with winds of 15 kt or more across a range at 30&deg; or more; lee downdrafts of 1,500 to 2,000 fpm are not uncommon<\/li><li style=\"margin:4px 0\"><strong>Wind limit:<\/strong> AIM: avoid flying a light aircraft when winds aloft exceed 35 mph<\/li><li style=\"margin:4px 0\"><strong>Rotor zone:<\/strong> Assume one below ridge level within about 20 nm of the ridge when waves are present (AC 00-57)<\/li><li style=\"margin:4px 0\"><strong>Ridge crossing:<\/strong> From the lee side add about 1,000 ft and approach at about 45&deg;<\/li><li style=\"margin:4px 0\"><strong>Canyon turn:<\/strong> Speed matters most: at 30&deg; bank, 120 kt needs about 4,400 ft to reverse, 140 kt over 6,000 ft (PHAK)<\/li><\/ul><\/div>\r\n\r\n\r\n<h2 style=\"padding-top:22px\">Density altitude: the thin-air tax<\/h2>\r\n\r\n<p>Every number in the pilot&rsquo;s operating handbook assumes a standard day at sea level: 15&deg;C and 29.92 inches of mercury. Mountain airports are neither. As the FAA&rsquo;s <em>Aeronautical Information Manual<\/em> (AIM, paragraph 7-6-7) explains, air density falls with altitude, and high temperature and humidity make it worse. The pilot calls the result density altitude: the altitude the aeroplane &ldquo;feels&rdquo; it is at.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<p>High density altitude reduces every performance figure at once. A normally aspirated engine makes less power, the propeller bites less air, and the wing needs a higher true airspeed to produce the same lift. Take-off runs get longer and climb rates shrink. The AIM&rsquo;s rule-of-thumb example is stark: a small aeroplane that needs 1,000 feet to take off at sea level on a standard day needs roughly 2,000 feet at 5,000 feet.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\" style=\"margin:0 0 24px;width:100%\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"skip-lazy\" data-no-lazy=\"1\" loading=\"eager\" width=\"1024\" src=\"https:\/\/migflug.com\/afterburner\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2026\/11\/leadville-lake-county-airport-klxv-short-final-runway-34.jpg\" alt=\"View from an aircraft on short final to runway 34 at Lake County Airport, Leadville, Colorado, with forested mountains beyond\" style=\"width:100%;height:auto;max-width:100%;display:block\"><figcaption style=\"font-size:13px;color:#777;text-align:center;margin-top:6px;font-style:italic\">Short final to runway 34 at Lake County Airport in Leadville, Colorado. At 9,934 feet it is North America&rsquo;s highest airport, and a classic place to meet high density altitude. Photo: Avitya \/ public domain<\/figcaption><\/figure>\r\n\r\n\r\n<p>Here is the first &ldquo;aha&rdquo;: on landing, nothing on the airspeed indicator looks different. The AIM tells pilots to fly the same indicated airspeed at a high field as at sea level. But the thin air means a higher true airspeed, a faster touchdown over the ground and a longer landing roll. At US airports at 2,000 feet elevation and above, towers and flight service stations broadcast &ldquo;Check density altitude&rdquo; when temperatures climb, but working it out remains the pilot&rsquo;s job.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n<div style=\"position:relative;padding-bottom:56.25%;height:0;overflow:hidden;margin:24px 0 8px\"><iframe class=\"skip-lazy\" data-no-lazy=\"1\" loading=\"eager\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/5yFIRHvoy4k\" style=\"position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:100%;border:0\" allowfullscreen><\/iframe><\/div>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"font-size:13px;color:#777;text-align:center;font-style:italic;margin:0 0 24px\">The AOPA Air Safety Institute on density altitude and the &ldquo;triple H&rdquo; effect of height, heat and humidity.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 style=\"padding-top:22px\">Mountain waves: rivers of air<\/h2>\r\n\r\n<p>When wind blows across a ridge, it does not simply flow over and settle down. On the upwind side it rises, usually as a smooth updraft. Past the crest, it turns into a turbulent downdraft and then sets off a series of downdrafts and updrafts that can continue for many miles downwind. That is a mountain wave.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<p>The AIM says it takes surprisingly little: wind of 15 knots or more blowing across the range at an angle of at least 30 degrees. Satellite images of the Rockies have shown waves extending as far as 700 miles downwind. The FAA&rsquo;s Advisory Circular 00-6B adds that mountain waves frequently produce severe to extreme turbulence, and that their downdrafts on the immediate lee side can exceed an aircraft&rsquo;s maximum climb rate.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n<div style=\"background:#f8f9fa;border-left:4px solid #d32f2f;padding:20px 22px;margin:18px 0 24px;font-size:16px;line-height:1.7\"><div><em>&ldquo;Many pilots go all their lives without understanding what a mountain wave is. Quite a few have lost their lives because of this lack of understanding.&rdquo;<\/em><div style=\"margin-top:10px;font-size:14px;color:#555\"><strong>Federal Aviation Administration<\/strong> &mdash; <em>Aeronautical Information Manual<\/em>, paragraph 7-6-7, Mountain Flying<\/div><\/div><\/div>\r\n\r\n\r\n<p>The AIM&rsquo;s numbers are sobering for anyone in a light aircraft. Downdrafts of 1,500 to 2,000 feet per minute are not uncommon on the lee side of a pass. Its advice: do not fly a light aircraft when winds aloft at your planned altitude exceed 35 miles per hour, expect much stronger winds over passes than reported a few miles away, and approach passes with as much altitude as possible.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\" style=\"margin:0 0 24px;width:100%\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"skip-lazy\" data-no-lazy=\"1\" loading=\"eager\" width=\"1024\" src=\"https:\/\/migflug.com\/afterburner\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2026\/11\/mountain-wave-lenticular-clouds-from-glider-cockpit.jpg\" alt=\"Smooth lens-shaped lenticular clouds above a mountain range seen from the cockpit of a glider\" style=\"width:100%;height:auto;max-width:100%;display:block\"><figcaption style=\"font-size:13px;color:#777;text-align:center;margin-top:6px;font-style:italic\">Lenticular clouds over a mountain range, seen from a sailplane. These smooth, lens-shaped clouds sit in the crests of a mountain wave and are a visible sign that one is present. Photo: Tobias Kemmerer \/ CC BY-SA 4.0<\/figcaption><\/figure>\r\n\r\n\r\n<p>When there is enough moisture, the wave draws its own warning signs. AC 00-6B describes the smooth, lens-shaped lenticular clouds that sit in the wave crests, plus cap clouds over the ridge and rotor clouds below. They stay fixed over the terrain while the wind blows straight through them. In dry air, though, the wave can be just as strong and completely invisible.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 style=\"padding-top:22px\">Rotors: the hidden washing machine<\/h2>\r\n\r\n<p>Under the first wave crest, near or below ridge level on the downwind side, the air often rolls over on itself in a horizontal vortex. The FAA&rsquo;s Advisory Circular 00-57, <em>Hazardous Mountain Winds and Their Visual Indicators<\/em>, calls this the rotor zone, an area of potentially severe-to-extreme wind shear and turbulence. Doppler lidar measurements have recorded rotational speeds of more than 20 knots inside rotors.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<p>The second &ldquo;aha&rdquo;: a rotor cloud can look harmless. From a distance it may resemble an ordinary cumulus cloud. The giveaways, according to AC 00-57, are a rounded downwind edge curling in the direction of rotation and ragged tags at the base that seem to form and vanish rapidly. The circular&rsquo;s rule of thumb is that when mountain waves are present, pilots should assume a rotor zone exists below ridge level within about 20 nautical miles of the ridge.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\" style=\"margin:0 0 24px;width:100%\"><img decoding=\"async\" class=\"skip-lazy\" data-no-lazy=\"1\" loading=\"eager\" width=\"1024\" src=\"https:\/\/migflug.com\/afterburner\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/4\/2026\/11\/mountain-wave-rotor-cloud-carson-valley-nevada.jpg\" alt=\"A large ragged cumulus-like rotor cloud seen from an aircraft over Carson Valley near Minden, Nevada\" style=\"width:100%;height:auto;max-width:100%;display:block\"><figcaption style=\"font-size:13px;color:#777;text-align:center;margin-top:6px;font-style:italic\">A rotor cloud over Carson Valley near Minden, Nevada, in the lee of the Sierra Nevada. Rotor clouds can look like ordinary cumulus but mark a zone of severe turbulence. Photo: Jeremy Zawodny \/ CC BY-SA 2.0<\/figcaption><\/figure>\r\n\r\n\r\n<p>Rotors are most dangerous close to the ground, during take-off and landing, when an aircraft is slow and in a high-drag configuration. The rolling moments inside can exceed the aircraft&rsquo;s roll control authority.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n<div style=\"background:#f8f9fa;border-left:4px solid #1565c0;padding:20px 22px;margin:18px 0 24px;font-size:16px;line-height:1.7\"><div><em>&ldquo;Because of their potential for causing turbulence and loss of aircraft control, rotor zones should be avoided.&rdquo;<\/em><div style=\"margin-top:10px;font-size:14px;color:#555\"><strong>Federal Aviation Administration<\/strong> &mdash; Advisory Circular 00-57, <em>Hazardous Mountain Winds and Their Visual Indicators<\/em><\/div><\/div><\/div>\r\n\r\n\r\n<h2 style=\"padding-top:22px\">Crossing a ridge at 45 degrees<\/h2>\r\n\r\n<p>Ridges and passes are where the wind accelerates and the terrain rises to meet you, so the AIM gives a specific technique. When approaching from the leeward side, the side the wind is blowing away from, add an extra thousand feet or so, because downdrafts can exceed the aircraft&rsquo;s climb capability. Never expect an updraft from that side.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<p>Then approach the ridge at an angle of about 45 degrees, not head-on. The reason is simple geometry. If you meet a severe downdraft or turbulence while angled to the ridge, a modest turn away points you straight back to lower terrain. Fly at it head-on and escaping means a full 180-degree turn, at the worst possible moment. If severe turbulence hits, the AIM says to slow towards manoeuvring speed and fly away from the area.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n<div style=\"position:relative;padding-bottom:56.25%;height:0;overflow:hidden;margin:24px 0 8px\"><iframe class=\"skip-lazy\" data-no-lazy=\"1\" loading=\"eager\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/jgSZG9SqN_s\" style=\"position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:100%;border:0\" allowfullscreen><\/iframe><\/div>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"font-size:13px;color:#777;text-align:center;font-style:italic;margin:0 0 24px\">The Met Office explains what rotors are and how they form beneath mountain waves.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<h2 style=\"padding-top:22px\">The canyon turn: speed, not bank<\/h2>\r\n\r\n<p>Valleys and canyons are tempting routes through the mountains, and some of the most dangerous. The AIM warns pilots not to fly into confined terrain without enough room to make a 180-degree turn, and to always fly with an escape route in mind. Rising terrain, a lowering cloud base or a valley that narrows faster than the aircraft can climb all turn a pleasant route into a trap.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<p>The manoeuvre for escaping is a tight course reversal, often called a canyon turn or box canyon turn. The FAA&rsquo;s <em>Pilot&rsquo;s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge<\/em> shows why speed decides it. In its example, two aircraft blunder into a canyon 5,000 feet wide and reverse course with a 30-degree bank. At 120 knots the turn needs about 4,400 feet, and the aircraft gets out. At 140 knots it needs over 6,000 feet, and it hits the canyon wall.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n<div style=\"position:relative;padding-bottom:56.25%;height:0;overflow:hidden;margin:24px 0 8px\"><iframe class=\"skip-lazy\" data-no-lazy=\"1\" loading=\"eager\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/MlCK97CWd-A\" style=\"position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:100%;border:0\" allowfullscreen><\/iframe><\/div>\r\n\r\n<p style=\"font-size:13px;color:#777;text-align:center;font-style:italic;margin:0 0 24px\">The Finer Points on the box canyon turn: reversing course in the shortest possible horizontal distance.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<p>The handbook&rsquo;s lesson is that airspeed is the most influential factor in turning distance, and that many pilots have made the error of steepening the bank when slowing down would have done more. In practice, a canyon turn starts long before the turn: slow down early in confined terrain, fly where there is room to reverse course, and decide to turn back while the option still exists.<\/p>\r\n\r\n<p>That is the theme of the whole subject. Mountain flying is not about heroic stick-and-rudder skill. It is about respecting thin air, reading the wind, giving ridges a wide angle and never flying anywhere you cannot turn around. The mountains will still be there tomorrow, and so should you.<\/p>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n<p><em>Sources: FAA Aeronautical Information Manual (paragraph 7-6-7, Mountain Flying), FAA Advisory Circular 00-6B (Aviation Weather), FAA Advisory Circular 00-57 (Hazardous Mountain Winds and Their Visual Indicators), FAA Pilot&rsquo;s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (Chapter 5), Wikipedia (Lee wave; Density altitude; Lake County Airport)<\/em><\/p>\r\n<!-- mfsh:bottom -->\r\n\r\n<button type=\"button\" class=\"mfsh-trigger mfsh-bottom\" data-mfsh-placement=\"bottom\" aria-haspopup=\"dialog\"><svg><use href=\"#mfsh-i-share\"\/><\/svg>Share this story<\/button>\r\n\r\n<!-- \/mfsh:bottom -->\r\n\r\n\r\n<style>.mfq{margin:34px 0 8px}.mfq h2{font:26px\/1.3 \"Gilroy semiBold\",Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;color:#0d1117;padding-top:22px;margin:0 0 6px}.mfq .qa details{border-top:1px solid #5C91FF;margin:0;padding:0}.mfq .qa details:last-of-type{border-bottom:1px solid #e2e7ee}.mfq .qa summary{cursor:pointer;list-style:none;display:flex;justify-content:space-between;align-items:center;gap:16px;padding:22px 26px;font:18px\/1.7 \"Gilroy semiBold\",Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;color:#0d1117}.mfq .qa summary::-webkit-details-marker{display:none}.mfq .qa summary::after{content:\"+\";font:24px Helvetica,sans-serif;color:#3568e0;flex:0 0 auto}.mfq .qa details[open] summary::after{content:\"\\2013\"}.mfq .qa details:hover summary{color:#3568e0}.mfq .qa .a{font:16px\/1.7 \"Gilroy regular\",Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;color:#454e5e;padding:0 26px 24px}.mfq .qa .a a{color:#3568e0}@media(max-width:680px){.mfq .qa summary{padding:18px 14px;font-size:17px}.mfq .qa .a{padding:0 14px 20px}}<\/style>\r\n\r\n\r\n<section class=\"mfq\"><h2>Frequently Asked Questions<\/h2><div class=\"qa\"><details open><summary>Why does density altitude matter in mountain flying?<\/summary><div class=\"a\">Density altitude measures how thin the air is, and mountain airports combine high elevation with summer heat. High density altitude reduces engine power, propeller efficiency and climb rate and lengthens take-off and landing distances. The FAA&rsquo;s AIM gives the example of a small aeroplane needing about 2,000 feet to take off at 5,000 feet instead of 1,000 at sea level.<\/div><\/details><details><summary>What is a mountain wave?<\/summary><div class=\"a\">A mountain wave forms when stable air flows over a mountain range. The air rises smoothly on the upwind side, then sets off a series of downdrafts and updrafts downwind. The FAA says winds of 15 knots or more across a range at 30 degrees or more can create one, with lee-side downdrafts of 1,500 to 2,000 feet per minute.<\/div><\/details><details><summary>What is a rotor in mountain flying?<\/summary><div class=\"a\">A rotor is a horizontal rolling vortex that often forms near or below ridge level on the downwind side of a mountain, under a wave crest. FAA Advisory Circular 00-57 describes rotor zones as areas of potentially severe-to-extreme turbulence and advises pilots to assume one exists within about 20 nautical miles of the ridge when waves are present.<\/div><\/details><details><summary>Why should pilots cross a mountain ridge at a 45-degree angle?<\/summary><div class=\"a\">The FAA&rsquo;s AIM recommends approaching a ridge from the downwind side at about 45 degrees so the pilot can retreat with a modest turn, and less stress on the aircraft, if severe turbulence or downdrafts are met. A head-on approach would require a full 180-degree turn. Pilots should also add about 1,000 feet when approaching from the lee.<\/div><\/details><details><summary>What is a canyon turn?<\/summary><div class=\"a\">A canyon turn, or box canyon turn, is a tight course reversal used to escape a valley or canyon. The FAA&rsquo;s Pilot&rsquo;s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge shows that speed dominates turn size: at a 30-degree bank, an aircraft at 120 knots needs about 4,400 feet to reverse, but at 140 knots it needs over 6,000 feet.<\/div><\/details><details><summary>How do you spot a mountain wave from the cockpit?<\/summary><div class=\"a\">With enough moisture, mountain waves produce smooth, lens-shaped lenticular clouds in the wave crests, cap clouds over the ridge and rotor clouds below. These clouds stay fixed over the terrain while the wind blows through them. In dry air, however, a mountain wave can be strong and completely invisible, so wind forecasts matter as much as the sky.<\/div><\/details><\/div><\/section>\r\n\r\n\r\n\r\n<script type=\"application\/ld+json\">{\"@context\":\"https:\/\/schema.org\",\"@type\":\"FAQPage\",\"mainEntity\":[{\"@type\":\"Question\",\"name\":\"Why does density altitude matter in mountain flying?\",\"acceptedAnswer\":{\"@type\":\"Answer\",\"text\":\"Density altitude measures how thin the air is, and mountain airports combine high elevation with summer heat. High density altitude reduces engine power, propeller efficiency and climb rate and lengthens take-off and landing distances. The FAA\u2019s AIM gives the example of a small aeroplane needing about 2,000 feet to take off at 5,000 feet instead of 1,000 at sea level.\"}},{\"@type\":\"Question\",\"name\":\"What is a mountain wave?\",\"acceptedAnswer\":{\"@type\":\"Answer\",\"text\":\"A mountain wave forms when stable air flows over a mountain range. The air rises smoothly on the upwind side, then sets off a series of downdrafts and updrafts downwind. The FAA says winds of 15 knots or more across a range at 30 degrees or more can create one, with lee-side downdrafts of 1,500 to 2,000 feet per minute.\"}},{\"@type\":\"Question\",\"name\":\"What is a rotor in mountain flying?\",\"acceptedAnswer\":{\"@type\":\"Answer\",\"text\":\"A rotor is a horizontal rolling vortex that often forms near or below ridge level on the downwind side of a mountain, under a wave crest. FAA Advisory Circular 00-57 describes rotor zones as areas of potentially severe-to-extreme turbulence and advises pilots to assume one exists within about 20 nautical miles of the ridge when waves are present.\"}},{\"@type\":\"Question\",\"name\":\"Why should pilots cross a mountain ridge at a 45-degree angle?\",\"acceptedAnswer\":{\"@type\":\"Answer\",\"text\":\"The FAA\u2019s AIM recommends approaching a ridge from the downwind side at about 45 degrees so the pilot can retreat with a modest turn, and less stress on the aircraft, if severe turbulence or downdrafts are met. A head-on approach would require a full 180-degree turn. Pilots should also add about 1,000 feet when approaching from the lee.\"}},{\"@type\":\"Question\",\"name\":\"What is a canyon turn?\",\"acceptedAnswer\":{\"@type\":\"Answer\",\"text\":\"A canyon turn, or box canyon turn, is a tight course reversal used to escape a valley or canyon. The FAA\u2019s Pilot\u2019s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge shows that speed dominates turn size: at a 30-degree bank, an aircraft at 120 knots needs about 4,400 feet to reverse, but at 140 knots it needs over 6,000 feet.\"}},{\"@type\":\"Question\",\"name\":\"How do you spot a mountain wave from the cockpit?\",\"acceptedAnswer\":{\"@type\":\"Answer\",\"text\":\"With enough moisture, mountain waves produce smooth, lens-shaped lenticular clouds in the wave crests, cap clouds over the ridge and rotor clouds below. These clouds stay fixed over the terrain while the wind blows through them. In dry air, however, a mountain wave can be strong and completely invisible, so wind forecasts matter as much as the sky.\"}}]}<\/script><div style=\"background:#f0f4ff;border-left:4px solid #5C91FF;padding:16px 20px;margin:32px 0 8px\"><p style=\"margin:0 0 8px;font-weight:600;color:#333\">Related Posts<\/p><p style=\"margin:4px 0\"><a href=\"https:\/\/migflug.com\/afterburner\/density-altitude-explained-hot-and-high\/\">Density Altitude Explained: Why Hot Days Make Runways Shorter<\/a><\/p><p style=\"margin:4px 0\"><a href=\"https:\/\/migflug.com\/afterburner\/perlan-glider-stratosphere-engineless-record\/\">The Engineless Glider That Soared to the Stratosphere<\/a><\/p><p style=\"margin:4px 0\"><a href=\"https:\/\/migflug.com\/afterburner\/how-to-read-the-sky-like-a-pilot\/\">How to Read the Sky Like a Pilot<\/a><\/p><p style=\"margin:4px 0\"><a href=\"https:\/\/migflug.com\/afterburner\/vfr-weather-minimums-91-155-explained-class-g-airspace\/\">VFR Weather Minimums: What 14 CFR 91.155 Is Really Telling You<\/a><\/p><\/div>\r\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Mountain flying basics from FAA material: density altitude, mountain waves and rotors, crossing ridges at 45 degrees, and why speed decides a canyon turn.<\/p>","protected":false},"author":23,"featured_media":31774725,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"editor_notices":[],"footnotes":""},"categories":[665],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-31774882","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-aviation-world"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v28.8 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/product\/yoast-seo-wordpress\/ -->\n<title>Mountain Flying Basics: Waves and Canyon Turns | MiGFlug<\/title>\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"Mountain flying basics from FAA guidance: density altitude, mountain waves and rotors, crossing ridges at 45 degrees, and why speed 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