{"id":20888,"date":"2026-08-10T14:27:45","date_gmt":"2026-08-10T12:27:45","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/migflug.com\/?page_id=20888"},"modified":"2026-08-10T14:27:45","modified_gmt":"2026-08-10T12:27:45","slug":"boulton-paul-defiant","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/migflug.com\/es\/aircraft\/boulton-paul-defiant\/","title":{"rendered":"Boulton Paul Defiant \u2014 History, Specs, Photos &#038; Stories"},"content":{"rendered":"<div id=\"mfam\">\n<style>html{overflow-x:hidden}body.page-id-20888{overflow-x:hidden}body.page-id-20888 h1.entry-title.main_title{display:none}body.page-id-20888 #sidebar{display:none}body.page-id-20888 #left-area{width:100%!important;float:none;padding:0}body.page-id-20888 #main-content .container::before{display:none!important;background:none!important}body.page-id-20888 #main-content .container{padding-top:0}#mfam{width:100vw;margin-left:calc(50% - 50vw);overflow:hidden;font-family:'Gilroy regular',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;color:#0d1117;background:#fff;line-height:1.6}#mfam *{box-sizing:border-box}#mfam img{max-width:100%;display:block}#mfam a{color:#3568e0;text-decoration:none}#mfam a:hover{text-decoration:underline}#mfam h2,#mfam h3,#mfam h1{font-family:'Gilroy semiBold',Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif;font-weight:600;color:#0d1117;line-height:1.2}#mfam .wrap{max-width:1080px;margin:0 auto;padding:0 22px}#mfam .sec{padding:60px 0}#mfam .kicker{font-family:'Gilroy semiBold';font-size:13px;letter-spacing:2px;text-transform:uppercase;color:#5C91FF;margin:0 0 12px}#mfam .sec>.wrap>h2,#mfam .sec2h{font-size:32px;margin:0 0 22px}#mfam .lead{font-size:19px;color:#39424e;max-width:820px}#mfam .hero{position:relative;width:100%;min-height:78vh;display:flex;align-items:flex-end;overflow:hidden;background:#0d1117}#mfam .hero-img{position:absolute;inset:0;width:100%;height:100%;object-fit:cover;opacity:.72}#mfam .hero-shade{position:absolute;inset:0;background:linear-gradient(180deg,rgba(13,17,23,.15) 0%,rgba(13,17,23,.35) 45%,rgba(13,17,23,.92) 100%)}#mfam .hero-inner{position:relative;z-index:2;max-width:1080px;margin:0 auto;padding:0 22px 46px;width:100%;color:#fff}#mfam .crumb{font-size:14px;color:#c7d2e2;margin-bottom:16px}#mfam .crumb a{color:#c7d2e2}#mfam .hero h1{font-size:60px;color:#fff;margin:0 0 14px;letter-spacing:-.5px}#mfam .claim{font-size:21px;color:#e7edf6;max-width:760px;margin:0 0 26px}#mfam .stripe{display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;gap:14px;border-top:1px solid rgba(255,255,255,.18);padding-top:22px}#mfam .stat{min-width:150px}#mfam .stat b{display:block;font-family:'Gilroy semiBold';font-size:30px;color:#5C91FF;line-height:1}#mfam .stat span{display:block;font-size:14px;color:#c7d2e2;margin-top:6px}#mfam .chips{display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;gap:10px;padding:26px 0 0}#mfam .chip{display:inline-flex;align-items:center;gap:7px;border:1px solid #e2e7ee;background:#f6f8fb;padding:9px 15px;font-size:14px;color:#39424e}#mfam .chip b{font-family:'Gilroy semiBold';color:#0d1117;font-weight:600}#mfam .chip.fly{background:#5C91FF;border-color:#5C91FF;color:#fff;font-family:'Gilroy semiBold'}#mfam .chip.fly a{color:#fff}#mfam .story p{font-size:18px;margin:0 0 20px;color:#1f2731}#mfam .pull{border-left:4px solid #5C91FF;background:#f6f8fb;padding:22px 26px;margin:30px 0;font-family:'Gilroy semiBold';font-size:22px;color:#0d1117;line-height:1.35}#mfam .pull span{display:block;font-family:'Gilroy regular';font-size:15px;color:#5a6472;margin-top:10px}#mfam .gd{border-top:1px solid #e2e7ee;margin-top:34px}#mfam .gd details{border-bottom:1px solid #e2e7ee}#mfam .gd summary{list-style:none;cursor:pointer;display:flex;align-items:flex-start;gap:18px;padding:22px 0}#mfam .gd summary::-webkit-details-marker{display:none}#mfam .gd .num{font-family:'Gilroy semiBold';font-size:34px;color:#d5dbe6;line-height:1;min-width:52px}#mfam .gd .gt{flex:1;font-family:'Gilroy semiBold';font-size:19px;color:#0d1117;padding-top:4px}#mfam .gd .pm{font-family:'Gilroy semiBold';font-size:26px;color:#5C91FF;line-height:1}#mfam .gd details[open] .pm{color:#0d1117}#mfam .gd-body{padding:0 0 26px 70px;font-size:17px;color:#28313c;max-width:860px}#mfam .gd-body p{margin:0 0 15px}#mfam .cards{display:grid;grid-template-columns:repeat(3,1fr);gap:20px}#mfam .card{border:1px solid #e2e7ee;padding:26px 24px;background:#fff}#mfam .card .n{font-family:'Gilroy semiBold';font-size:15px;letter-spacing:1px;color:#5C91FF}#mfam .card h3{font-size:20px;margin:12px 0 12px}#mfam .card p{font-size:15.5px;color:#39424e;margin:0}#mfam table.spec{width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;margin:0 0 10px}#mfam table.spec caption{text-align:left;font-family:'Gilroy semiBold';font-size:18px;color:#0d1117;padding:0 0 12px}#mfam .spec th,#mfam .spec td{text-align:left;padding:13px 14px;border-bottom:1px solid #e2e7ee;font-size:16px;vertical-align:top}#mfam .spec th{font-family:'Gilroy regular';font-weight:normal;color:#5a6472;width:46%}#mfam .spec td{font-family:'Gilroy regular';font-weight:normal;color:#0d1117}#mfam .spec tr:nth-child(even){background:#f6f8fb}#mfam .twocol{display:grid;grid-template-columns:1fr 1fr;gap:34px}#mfam .tl{border-left:2px solid #e2e7ee;margin-left:8px}#mfam .tl .row{position:relative;padding:0 0 30px 30px}#mfam .tl .row::before{content:'';position:absolute;left:-8px;top:3px;width:14px;height:14px;background:#5C91FF}#mfam .tl .yr{font-family:'Gilroy semiBold';font-size:19px;color:#0d1117}#mfam .tl .ev{font-size:16.5px;color:#39424e;margin-top:5px;max-width:760px}#mfam .carou{position:relative}#mfam .track{display:flex;gap:18px;overflow-x:auto;scroll-behavior:smooth;padding:4px 2px 18px;-webkit-overflow-scrolling:touch}#mfam .track::-webkit-scrollbar{height:8px}#mfam .track::-webkit-scrollbar-thumb{background:#cdd6e2}#mfam .scard{flex:0 0 340px;border:1px solid #e2e7ee;background:#fff;padding:24px 22px}#mfam .scard .st{font-family:'Gilroy semiBold';font-size:13px;letter-spacing:1px;text-transform:uppercase;color:#5C91FF;margin-bottom:9px}#mfam .scard h3{font-size:18px;margin:0 0 10px}#mfam .scard p{font-size:15.5px;color:#39424e;margin:0}#mfam .scard details{margin-top:10px}#mfam .scard summary{cursor:pointer;color:#3568e0;font-family:'Gilroy semiBold';font-size:14px;list-style:none}#mfam .scard summary::-webkit-details-marker{display:none}#mfam .cbtns{display:flex;gap:10px;margin-top:16px}#mfam .cbtn{width:46px;height:46px;border:none;background:#5C91FF;color:#fff;font-size:20px;cursor:pointer;display:flex;align-items:center;justify-content:center;font-family:'Gilroy semiBold'}#mfam .cbtn:hover{background:#3568e0}#mfam .gtrack{display:flex;gap:16px;overflow-x:auto;scroll-behavior:smooth;padding-bottom:16px}#mfam .gtrack figure{flex:0 0 auto;width:520px;max-width:82vw;margin:0}#mfam .gtrack img{width:100%;height:340px;object-fit:cover;background:#eef1f5}#mfam .gtrack figcaption{font-size:13.5px;color:#5a6472;padding:9px 2px 0;line-height:1.5}#mfam .vidwrap{position:relative;padding-bottom:56.25%;height:0;background:#0d1117}#mfam .vidwrap iframe{position:absolute;inset:0;width:100%;height:100%;border:0}#mfam .vcap{font-size:14px;color:#5a6472;margin-top:12px}#mfam .combat{display:grid;grid-template-columns:repeat(4,1fr);gap:18px}#mfam .cstat{border:1px solid #e2e7ee;padding:22px 20px;background:#f6f8fb}#mfam .cstat b{display:block;font-family:'Gilroy semiBold';font-size:30px;color:#5C91FF;line-height:1}#mfam .cstat span{display:block;font-size:14.5px;color:#39424e;margin-top:8px}#mfam .faq details.qa{border-bottom:1px solid #e2e7ee}#mfam .faq summary{list-style:none;cursor:pointer;font-family:'Gilroy semiBold';font-size:18px;color:#0d1117;padding:20px 40px 20px 0;position:relative}#mfam .faq summary::-webkit-details-marker{display:none}#mfam .faq summary::after{content:'+';position:absolute;right:6px;top:16px;font-size:26px;color:#5C91FF;font-family:'Gilroy semiBold'}#mfam .faq details[open] summary::after{content:'\\2013'}#mfam .faq .a{padding:0 0 22px;font-size:17px;color:#28313c;max-width:860px}#mfam .faq .a p{margin:0 0 14px}#mfam .cta{background:#0d1117;color:#fff;padding:60px 0}#mfam .cta h2{color:#fff;font-size:30px;max-width:820px;margin:0 0 10px}#mfam .cta p{color:#b8c2d1;font-size:17px;max-width:720px;margin:0 0 26px}#mfam .ctacar{display:flex;gap:18px;overflow-x:auto;scroll-behavior:smooth;padding-bottom:10px}#mfam .ctacard{flex:0 0 300px;background:#161c26;border:1px solid #232c39;padding:0}#mfam .ctacard img{width:100%;height:180px;object-fit:cover}#mfam .ctacard .cc{padding:18px 20px}#mfam .ctacard h3{color:#fff;font-size:19px;margin:0 0 6px}#mfam .ctacard p{color:#9fb0c4;font-size:14.5px;margin:0 0 14px}#mfam .ctabtn{display:inline-block;background:#5C91FF;color:#fff;font-family:'Gilroy semiBold';font-size:14px;padding:11px 18px}#mfam .ctabtn:hover{background:#3568e0;text-decoration:none;color:#fff}#mfam .relgrid{display:grid;grid-template-columns:repeat(3,1fr);gap:20px}#mfam .relcard{border:1px solid #e2e7ee;background:#fff;color:#0d1117}#mfam .relcard img{width:100%;height:190px;object-fit:cover}#mfam .relcard .rc{padding:18px 20px;display:block}#mfam .relcard .rt{font-family:'Gilroy semiBold';font-size:18px;color:#0d1117;display:block;margin-bottom:6px}#mfam .relcard .rd{font-size:14.5px;color:#5a6472;display:block}#mfam .relgrid>p,#mfam .track>p,#mfam .gtrack>p,#mfam .ctacar>p,#mfam .combat>p,#mfam .cards>p{display:contents}#mfam .srcgrid{display:grid;grid-template-columns:1fr 1fr;gap:12px 34px}#mfam .srcitem{border-bottom:1px solid #eef1f5;padding:11px 0;font-size:15.5px}#mfam .srcitem b{font-family:'Gilroy semiBold';font-weight:600;color:#0d1117}#mfam .srcitem span{color:#5a6472}#mfam .fnote{font-size:13.5px;color:#8892a0;margin-top:26px}@media(max-width:880px){#mfam .cards,#mfam .combat,#mfam .relgrid,#mfam .twocol{grid-template-columns:1fr}#mfam .hero h1{font-size:40px}#mfam .hero{min-height:66vh}#mfam .sec2h,#mfam .sec>.wrap>h2{font-size:26px}#mfam .claim{font-size:18px}#mfam .gd-body{padding-left:0}}<\/style>\n<div class=\"hero\"><img data-opt-id=938106966  data-opt-src=\"https:\/\/ml5psubhxdln.i.optimole.com\/cb:78--.b845\/w:auto\/h:auto\/q:96\/f:best\/https:\/\/migflug.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/08\/boulton-paul-defiant-264-squadron-turret-fighter.jpg\"  decoding=\"async\" class=\"hero-img\" src=\"data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20viewBox%3D%220%200%20100%%20100%%22%20width%3D%22100%%22%20height%3D%22100%%22%20xmlns%3D%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2Fsvg%22%3E%3Crect%20width%3D%22100%%22%20height%3D%22100%%22%20fill%3D%22transparent%22%2F%3E%3C%2Fsvg%3E\" alt=\"Boulton Paul Defiant Mk I turret fighters of No. 264 Squadron RAF in formation\"><\/p>\n<div class=\"hero-shade\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"hero-inner\">\n<div class=\"crumb\"><a href=\"https:\/\/migflug.com\/aircraft\/\">Aircraft Museum<\/a> \u203a Boulton Paul Defiant<\/div>\n<h1>Boulton Paul Defiant<\/h1>\n<p class=\"claim\">The RAF\u2019s turret fighter with no forward guns \u2014 lethal from astern, defenceless head-on, and reborn as one of the deadliest night fighters of the Blitz.<\/p>\n<div class=\"stripe\">\n<div class=\"stat\"><b>489 km\/h<\/b><span>Top speed (Mk I)<\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"stat\"><b>~1,064<\/b><span>Defiants built<\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"stat\"><b>4<\/b><span>.303 guns, all in the turret<\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"stat\"><b>0<\/b><span>Fixed forward-firing guns<\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"sec\">\n<div class=\"wrap\">\n<div class=\"chips\"><span class=\"chip\"><b>Role<\/b> Turret fighter \/ night fighter<\/span><span class=\"chip\"><b>Era<\/b> 1939\u20131945<\/span><span class=\"chip\"><b>Engine<\/b> Rolls-Royce Merlin<\/span><span class=\"chip\"><b>Origin<\/b> United Kingdom<\/span><span class=\"chip\"><b>Status<\/b> Retired; none airworthy<\/span><span class=\"chip fly\"><a href=\"#faq\">Can you fly a Defiant today?<\/a><\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"sec\">\n<div class=\"wrap\">\n<p class=\"kicker\">At a Glance<\/p>\n<h2>Boulton Paul Defiant: key facts<\/h2>\n<div class=\"combat\" style=\"grid-template-columns:repeat(4,1fr)\">\n<div class=\"cstat\" style=\"background:#fff\"><span style=\"font-family:'Gilroy semiBold';font-size:13px;letter-spacing:1px;text-transform:uppercase;color:#5C91FF;display:block;margin-bottom:6px\">First flight<\/span><span style=\"font-size:15.5px;color:#0d1117;display:block;margin-top:0\">11 August 1937<\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"cstat\" style=\"background:#fff\"><span style=\"font-family:'Gilroy semiBold';font-size:13px;letter-spacing:1px;text-transform:uppercase;color:#5C91FF;display:block;margin-bottom:6px\">RAF service<\/span><span style=\"font-size:15.5px;color:#0d1117;display:block;margin-top:0\">December 1939<\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"cstat\" style=\"background:#fff\"><span style=\"font-family:'Gilroy semiBold';font-size:13px;letter-spacing:1px;text-transform:uppercase;color:#5C91FF;display:block;margin-bottom:6px\">Manufacturer<\/span><span style=\"font-size:15.5px;color:#0d1117;display:block;margin-top:0\">Boulton Paul Aircraft, Wolverhampton<\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"cstat\" style=\"background:#fff\"><span style=\"font-family:'Gilroy semiBold';font-size:13px;letter-spacing:1px;text-transform:uppercase;color:#5C91FF;display:block;margin-bottom:6px\">Chief designer<\/span><span style=\"font-size:15.5px;color:#0d1117;display:block;margin-top:0\">John Dudley North<\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"cstat\" style=\"background:#fff\"><span style=\"font-family:'Gilroy semiBold';font-size:13px;letter-spacing:1px;text-transform:uppercase;color:#5C91FF;display:block;margin-bottom:6px\">Crew<\/span><span style=\"font-size:15.5px;color:#0d1117;display:block;margin-top:0\">2 (pilot &amp; turret gunner)<\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"cstat\" style=\"background:#fff\"><span style=\"font-family:'Gilroy semiBold';font-size:13px;letter-spacing:1px;text-transform:uppercase;color:#5C91FF;display:block;margin-bottom:6px\">Powerplant<\/span><span style=\"font-size:15.5px;color:#0d1117;display:block;margin-top:0\">1 \u00d7 Rolls-Royce Merlin<\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"cstat\" style=\"background:#fff\"><span style=\"font-family:'Gilroy semiBold';font-size:13px;letter-spacing:1px;text-transform:uppercase;color:#5C91FF;display:block;margin-bottom:6px\">Armament<\/span><span style=\"font-size:15.5px;color:#0d1117;display:block;margin-top:0\">4 \u00d7 .303 in Browning \u2014 all in the turret<\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"cstat\" style=\"background:#fff\"><span style=\"font-family:'Gilroy semiBold';font-size:13px;letter-spacing:1px;text-transform:uppercase;color:#5C91FF;display:block;margin-bottom:6px\">Top speed<\/span><span style=\"font-size:15.5px;color:#0d1117;display:block;margin-top:0\">~489 km\/h (304 mph), Mk I<\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"sec\">\n<div class=\"wrap\">\n<p class=\"kicker\">The Story<\/p>\n<h2>The Boulton Paul Defiant: the fighter that shot backwards<\/h2>\n<div class=\"story\">\n<p>In the mid-1930s the Royal Air Force built a fighter unlike any other in front-line service: a single-engine monoplane with not one gun pointing forward. Every weapon the Boulton Paul Defiant carried \u2014 four .303 inch Browning machine guns \u2014 was packed into a power-operated turret mounted behind the pilot and aimed by a second crewman. It was a fighter designed to shoot sideways and backwards, and for a few weeks in 1940 it was one of the most dangerous aircraft in the sky. Then, almost overnight, it became one of the most dangerous aircraft to fly.<\/p>\n<p>The idea behind it was not madness but doctrine. In the years before the war the Air Ministry expected the main threat to Britain to come from massed formations of enemy bombers, not fighters \u2014 the escort fighter with the range to reach Britain barely existed yet. A \u201cturret fighter\u201d could formate alongside a bomber stream and rake it with concentrated, trainable fire from angles a fixed-gun fighter could never hold. Air Ministry Specification F.9\/35 called for exactly such an aircraft, and Boulton Paul Aircraft of Wolverhampton, under chief designer John Dudley North, answered it.<\/p>\n<p>North built the Defiant around a Boulton Paul Type A turret \u2014 a compact hydraulic dome derived from a French SAMM design \u2014 carrying four Brownings. Power came from a single Rolls-Royce Merlin, the same engine that drove the Hurricane and Spitfire. But the Defiant had to haul a heavy turret, its hydraulics and a second man, and it paid for them in performance: at around 304 mph it was slower than a Hurricane and had no forward armament at all. The prototype first flew on 11 August 1937, and No. 264 Squadron received the first Mk Is in December 1939.<\/p>\n<p>On paper this was still a modern, capable aircraft. It was an all-metal, stressed-skin monoplane with a retractable undercarriage and an enclosed cockpit \u2014 everything the RAF\u2019s obsolescent biplanes were not. The problem was not the airframe but the philosophy bolted into the middle of it. A conventional fighter concentrated its firepower and its pilot\u2019s attention in the same direction; the Defiant split them, asking one man to fly and another, sealed in a turret behind him, to fight.<\/p>\n<p>When the Defiant went to war over France and Dunkirk in May 1940, it enjoyed a startling early success. On 29 May, No. 264 Squadron claimed a large number of German aircraft in a single day. The reason was tactical surprise: from head-on or in silhouette the Defiant looked much like a Hurricane, and Luftwaffe fighter pilots who dived on it from astern \u2014 the safe quarter against a normal fighter \u2014 flew straight into the massed fire of its turret. As with every claim made in the confusion of 1940, the totals were later found to be exaggerated, but the shock the Defiant delivered was real.<\/p>\n<p>It did not last. Once German pilots understood what they were fighting, the trick collapsed. They attacked from below and from head-on, where the Defiant had no guns whatsoever, and used its sluggishness against it. On 19 July 1940 No. 141 Squadron was bounced by Bf 109s off Folkestone and lost six of its nine aircraft in a matter of minutes. Through August, No. 264 Squadron was mauled again in the Battle of Britain. By late summer the verdict was unavoidable: as a day fighter, the turret-fighter concept had failed. The Defiant was withdrawn from daylight combat.<\/p>\n<p>And then it found its second life. In the dark, the very features that doomed the Defiant by day became strengths. A night fighter did not dogfight; it stalked. The Defiant\u2019s pilot could ease his aircraft underneath a raider and hold formation while the gunner fired upward into its unprotected belly \u2014 an almost ideal use of a trainable turret. Through the Blitz of 1940\u201341, Defiant squadrons defending British cities did remarkably well; for a stretch of that winter the Defiant destroyed more German aircraft at night than any other RAF type. Later aircraft carried early airborne interception (AI) radar, giving the crew eyes in the dark.<\/p>\n<p>As purpose-built night fighters such as the Beaufighter and Mosquito arrived, the Defiant was eased out of the front line \u2014 but not out of work. Hundreds were converted into target tugs, which became the type\u2019s longest and most numerous career. Others flew air-sea rescue, spotting and dropping dinghies to aircrew down in the Channel, and some flew electronic-countermeasures missions under the codenames \u201cMoonshine\u201d and \u201cMandrel,\u201d spoofing and jamming German radar. In all, about 1,064 Defiants of all marks were built before production ended.<\/p>\n<p>There is a temptation to laugh at the Defiant, and it is worth resisting. Its crews were not fools, and neither were the men who ordered it. They were answering the problem as it appeared before the war \u2014 the fear of the self-defending bomber fleet \u2014 with the best technology and the clearest doctrine they had. That the war then delivered a different problem, the fast escort fighter, is not a charge that can fairly be laid at the aircraft. The Defiant did exactly what it was designed to do; it was the design brief that was wrong.<\/p>\n<p>The turret idea was not even unique to Boulton Paul. The Royal Navy ordered its own turret fighter, the Blackburn Roc, on the same reasoning, and the concept had serious advocates across the inter-war RAF. When it failed, it failed as a whole school of thought, not as one company\u2019s blunder \u2014 which is part of why the Defiant is such an instructive aircraft to study rather than simply to mock.<\/p>\n<p>It is also worth being precise about the aircraft it is so often compared with. The Hurricane and Spitfire carried eight forward-firing guns and a single pilot; the Defiant carried four guns in a turret and two men. Against bombers, the two philosophies were closer than they look. Against fighters, they were worlds apart \u2014 and 1940 was, above all, a fighter\u2019s war. Once that became clear, the RAF did the sensible thing: it stopped using the Defiant in the role that killed its crews and found the roles in which it could still do good work.<\/p>\n<p>The Boulton Paul Defiant is remembered, then, as a brave and well-made answer to the wrong question \u2014 a sound aircraft whose founding premise was flawed for daylight fighting, yet which redeemed itself over blacked-out British cities and in the unglamorous support roles that kept others flying. Only one original survives today, and it does not fly. That is why it belongs in a museum \u2014 and why the story of its turret is worth telling in full.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"pull\">Attacked from behind, it was deadly; attacked from head-on, it was defenceless.<span>The Boulton Paul Defiant paradox<\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"gd\">\n<details>\n<summary><span class=\"num\">01<\/span><span class=\"gt\">The Boulton Paul Defiant\u2019s turret-fighter concept: why a fighter had no forward guns<\/span><span class=\"pm\">+<\/span><\/summary>\n<div class=\"gd-body\">\n<p>The Defiant was built to Air Ministry Specification F.9\/35, which asked for a two-seat day and night fighter whose armament was concentrated in a single power-operated turret rather than in fixed, forward-firing guns. The thinking reflected the doctrine of the mid-1930s: planners expected unescorted bomber formations to be the main threat, and believed a fighter that could pull alongside and hold its fire on a bomber from any angle would be more effective than one that could only shoot straight ahead.<\/p>\n<p>Boulton Paul\u2019s answer placed four .303 Brownings in a Type A turret behind the pilot, operated by a dedicated gunner. Crucially, the pilot had no guns of his own and no gunsight for forward fire; he flew the aircraft into position and the gunner did the shooting. It was a genuine attempt to solve a real problem \u2014 but it built an aircraft optimised for a kind of air war that 1940 did not deliver.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/details>\n<details>\n<summary><span class=\"num\">02<\/span><span class=\"gt\">Why the Boulton Paul Defiant failed as a day fighter<\/span><span class=\"pm\">+<\/span><\/summary>\n<div class=\"gd-body\">\n<p>Against a modern single-seat fighter the Defiant\u2019s weaknesses were fatal. It had no forward armament, so it could not attack head-on or make a conventional fighter pass. The weight of the turret, its hydraulics and a second crewman made it slower and less agile than a Hurricane or a Bf 109. And it had a defenceless cone below and ahead, precisely the angles a determined attacker would choose once the novelty had worn off.<\/p>\n<p>After the early surprise over Dunkirk, the Luftwaffe learned to dive from head-on or from underneath, and the day-fighter losses became unsustainable \u2014 No. 141 Squadron\u2019s mauling on 19 July 1940 being the sharpest example. The failure was not one of courage or construction; it was that the turret-fighter concept itself was unsound for daylight combat against agile fighters.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/details>\n<details>\n<summary><span class=\"num\">03<\/span><span class=\"gt\">Dunkirk 1940: the Boulton Paul Defiant\u2019s brief triumph, then slaughter<\/span><span class=\"pm\">+<\/span><\/summary>\n<div class=\"gd-body\">\n<p>Over Dunkirk in late May 1940 the Defiant briefly looked like a war-winner. On 29 May No. 264 Squadron claimed dozens of German aircraft in a day, because enemy pilots, mistaking the Defiant for a Hurricane, attacked from astern and were met by four guns firing back. Contemporary claims were greatly inflated, as claims on all sides were in 1940, but the squadron genuinely inflicted real losses and real alarm.<\/p>\n<p>Within weeks the advantage evaporated. As German pilots recognised the type and changed their angle of attack, the same squadrons that had scored so heavily began to suffer catastrophic losses. The Defiant\u2019s war in daylight lasted barely a season before it was withdrawn \u2014 one of the most abrupt rises and falls of any fighter of the war.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/details>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"sec\" style=\"background:#f6f8fb\">\n<div class=\"wrap\">\n<p class=\"kicker\">Design &amp; Engineering<\/p>\n<h2>How the Boulton Paul Defiant was built to fight<\/h2>\n<p class=\"lead\" style=\"margin-bottom:30px\">The Defiant was a clean, modern monoplane built around one radical decision \u2014 to put all its guns in a turret \u2014 and everything else about the airframe followed from, and paid for, that choice.<\/p>\n<div class=\"cards\">\n<div class=\"card\">\n<div class=\"n\">01<\/div>\n<h3>A fighter built around a turret<\/h3>\n<p>The heart of the Defiant was the Boulton Paul Type A power-operated turret, carrying four .303 in Browning machine guns and mounted directly behind the pilot. Hydraulically driven and derived from a French SAMM design, it let the gunner train concentrated fire through a wide arc \u2014 but it dictated the whole aircraft, from its two-seat layout to its weight and drag.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"card\">\n<div class=\"n\">02<\/div>\n<h3>One Rolls-Royce Merlin<\/h3>\n<p>Like the Hurricane and Spitfire, the Defiant was powered by a single Rolls-Royce Merlin \u2014 the Merlin III of about 1,030 hp in the Mk I, and the more powerful Merlin XX in the Mk II. But the Defiant asked that one engine to carry a turret, its hydraulics and a second man, so the same Merlin delivered noticeably less speed and climb than it gave a single-seat fighter.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"card\">\n<div class=\"n\">03<\/div>\n<h3>Two crew and a defensive gap<\/h3>\n<p>The Defiant carried a pilot and a turret gunner, with no dual controls and no forward guns. The pilot manoeuvred the aircraft while the gunner fought; teamwork was everything. The price was a blind, gunless cone below and ahead \u2014 the exact quarter enemy fighters exploited once they understood the type, and the reason the concept unravelled so quickly in daylight.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"sec\">\n<div class=\"wrap\">\n<p class=\"kicker\">Design in Detail<\/p>\n<h2>The Boulton Paul Defiant, part by part<\/h2>\n<p class=\"lead\" style=\"margin-bottom:30px\">Beyond the turret, the Defiant was a thoroughly modern late-1930s monoplane. These are the details that defined how it flew and fought.<\/p>\n<div class=\"cards\">\n<div class=\"card\">\n<div class=\"n\">04<\/div>\n<h3>Airframe and construction<\/h3>\n<p>The Defiant was an all-metal, stressed-skin monoplane with a retractable undercarriage, enclosed cockpit and flaps \u2014 fully up to date for its day. Aerodynamically it was clean; the penalty it carried was structural, in the mass and drag of the turret and the second crew station rather than in any crudeness of the airframe itself.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"card\">\n<div class=\"n\">05<\/div>\n<h3>Cockpit and crew stations<\/h3>\n<p>Pilot and gunner sat in tandem but worked in near-isolation, linked only by intercom. The pilot had no guns and no gunsight for forward fire; the gunner had no flying controls. Escaping the turret in an emergency was difficult, and the awkwardness of bailing out was one of the aircraft\u2019s genuine and much-criticised dangers.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"card\">\n<div class=\"n\">06<\/div>\n<h3>Armament and ammunition<\/h3>\n<p>The four .303 in Browning machine guns in the turret were belt-fed and power-aimed, giving a heavy, concentrated burst through a wide arc. But rifle-calibre guns were already marginal against armoured 1940 aircraft, and the turret carried a finite supply of ammunition with no forward-firing reserve if the guns or hydraulics failed.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"gd\">\n<details>\n<summary><span class=\"num\">16<\/span><span class=\"gt\">The Boulton Paul Type A turret mechanism<\/span><span class=\"pm\">+<\/span><\/summary>\n<div class=\"gd-body\">\n<p>The Type A turret was hydraulically powered, driven by a pump on the engine, which let the gunner slew and elevate the four guns quickly and precisely \u2014 a real advance over the hand-worked positions of earlier aircraft.<\/p>\n<p>That power operation was the turret\u2019s great strength, but it also added weight, complexity and a dependence on the hydraulic system. A failure there could leave the gunner with a heavy, sluggish turret and the aircraft with no working armament at all.<\/p>\n<p>The same Boulton Paul turret technology, licensed and developed from de Boysson\u2019s French SAMM design, went on to arm many RAF bombers, making it one of the company\u2019s most important contributions to the air war.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/details>\n<details>\n<summary><span class=\"num\">17<\/span><span class=\"gt\">The Rolls-Royce Merlin III and Merlin XX in the Defiant<\/span><span class=\"pm\">+<\/span><\/summary>\n<div class=\"gd-body\">\n<p>The Mk I Defiant used the Merlin III of roughly 1,030 hp \u2014 the same mark that powered early Hurricanes and Spitfires. It gave the Defiant adequate but unspectacular performance once the weight of the turret was accounted for.<\/p>\n<p>The Mk II introduced the Merlin XX of around 1,280 hp, with a two-speed supercharger that improved performance at altitude. Combined with extra fuel, it made a distinctly better night fighter.<\/p>\n<p>In both cases the engine was never the problem. The Merlin was superb; it was simply being asked to lift a heavier, more complex airframe than it carried in the single-seat fighters.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/details>\n<details>\n<summary><span class=\"num\">18<\/span><span class=\"gt\">Handling and the danger of bailing out<\/span><span class=\"pm\">+<\/span><\/summary>\n<div class=\"gd-body\">\n<p>In the air the Defiant was pleasant enough to fly and reasonably manoeuvrable for its weight, but it lacked the sparkling performance of a single-seat Merlin fighter, and pilots learned that they could not fight it like one.<\/p>\n<p>The most notorious hazard was escape. Getting the gunner out of the turret in a stricken aircraft was difficult, and the type gained a grim reputation for the number of gunners lost when Defiants went down.<\/p>\n<p>These were not the failings that doomed the Defiant as a day fighter \u2014 that was the concept \u2014 but they added to the human cost paid by its crews during the aircraft\u2019s brief and bloody front-line career.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/details>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"sec\">\n<div class=\"wrap\">\n<p class=\"kicker\">Specifications<\/p>\n<h2>Boulton Paul Defiant Mk I specifications<\/h2>\n<p class=\"lead\" style=\"margin-bottom:22px\">Representative figures for the Defiant Mk I; sources differ on weights and speeds, so contested values are given as approximate.<\/p>\n<div class=\"twocol\">\n<table class=\"spec\">\n<caption>General characteristics<\/caption>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th>Crew<\/th>\n<td>2 (pilot and turret gunner)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Length<\/th>\n<td>10.77 m (35 ft 4 in)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Wingspan<\/th>\n<td>11.99 m (39 ft 4 in)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Height<\/th>\n<td>~3.45 m (11 ft 4 in)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Wing area<\/th>\n<td>23.2 m\u00b2 (250 sq ft)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Empty weight<\/th>\n<td>~2,760 kg (6,078 lb) \u2014 approx<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Max takeoff weight<\/th>\n<td>~3,820 kg (8,420 lb) \u2014 approx<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Powerplant<\/th>\n<td>1 \u00d7 Rolls-Royce Merlin III (Mk I)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Power<\/th>\n<td>~1,030 hp (768 kW)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<table class=\"spec\">\n<caption>Performance, armament &amp; cost<\/caption>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th>Maximum speed<\/th>\n<td>~489 km\/h (304 mph) at 5,180 m (Mk I); ~504 km\/h (313 mph) Mk II \u2014 figures vary<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Cruising speed<\/th>\n<td>~319 km\/h (198 mph) \u2014 approx<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Range<\/th>\n<td>~750 km (465 mi) \u2014 approx<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Service ceiling<\/th>\n<td>~9,250 m (30,350 ft) \u2014 approx<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Armament<\/th>\n<td>4 \u00d7 .303 in Browning MGs in a power-operated dorsal turret<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Fixed forward guns<\/th>\n<td>None<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>First flight<\/th>\n<td>11 August 1937<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Unit cost<\/th>\n<td>Not reliably recorded (WWII)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Cost per flight hour<\/th>\n<td>Not applicable \u2014 no airworthy example<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"gd\">\n<details>\n<summary><span class=\"num\">04<\/span><span class=\"gt\">The Boulton Paul Defiant\u2019s variants: Mk I, Mk II and the target tugs<\/span><span class=\"pm\">+<\/span><\/summary>\n<div class=\"gd-body\">\n<p>The main fighter marks were the Mk I, powered by the Merlin III, and the Mk II, with the more powerful Merlin XX and extra fuel to improve its performance as a night fighter. Many later aircraft were completed or converted for the night-fighter role and carried AI radar.<\/p>\n<p>The largest single group of later Defiants, however, were not fighters at all: hundreds were built or converted as TT Mk I and TT Mk III target tugs, and others served in air-sea rescue and electronic-countermeasures roles. In total about 1,064 Defiants were built, though the exact split between marks and roles varies between sources.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/details>\n<details>\n<summary><span class=\"num\">05<\/span><span class=\"gt\">The Boulton Paul Defiant\u2019s costs: what it cost then, and why you cannot fly one now<\/span><span class=\"pm\">+<\/span><\/summary>\n<div class=\"gd-body\">\n<p>No reliable unit cost for the Defiant is recorded in the way modern aircraft prices are quoted, and wartime cost-per-flying-hour figures were never compiled to any comparable standard \u2014 so both are best treated as \u201cnot reliably recorded.\u201d The Defiant was a mass-produced 1940 fighter, procured in wartime under conditions that make a clean modern-style figure impossible.<\/p>\n<p>There is also no cost-per-hour to fly one today, for the simplest of reasons: no Defiant is airworthy anywhere in the world. Only one original survives, as a static museum exhibit, so unlike some warbirds there is no flying example to operate. If you want the experience of flying a genuine military aircraft, MiGFlug can arrange it in other types \u2014 see <a href=\"https:\/\/migflug.com\/flights-prices\/\">migflug.com\/flights-prices\/<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/details>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"sec\" style=\"background:#f6f8fb\">\n<div class=\"wrap\">\n<p class=\"kicker\">Reference Data<\/p>\n<h2>Boulton Paul Defiant: design, service and production<\/h2>\n<p class=\"lead\" style=\"margin-bottom:22px\">Background reference data spanning the Defiant family, from the F.9\/35 specification to the sole surviving airframe.<\/p>\n<table class=\"spec\">\n<caption>Detailed technical &amp; production data<\/caption>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th>Manufacturer<\/th>\n<td>Boulton Paul Aircraft Ltd, Wolverhampton<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Country of origin<\/th>\n<td>United Kingdom<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Design specification<\/th>\n<td>Air Ministry F.9\/35 (two-seat turret fighter)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Chief designer<\/th>\n<td>John Dudley North<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Prototype first flight<\/th>\n<td>11 August 1937<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Service entry<\/th>\n<td>December 1939 (No. 264 Squadron)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Turret<\/th>\n<td>Boulton Paul Type A (hydraulic, 4 \u00d7 .303 Browning)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Primary operator<\/th>\n<td>Royal Air Force<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Number built<\/th>\n<td>~1,064 (all marks; figures vary)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Main variants<\/th>\n<td>Mk I, Mk II, TT Mk I\/III (target tug), ASR<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Withdrawn (day fighter)<\/th>\n<td>August 1940<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Night-fighter service<\/th>\n<td>1940\u20131942<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Later roles<\/th>\n<td>Target tug, air-sea rescue, radar-jamming (ECM)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Surviving original<\/th>\n<td>One (N1671, RAF Museum Midlands \/ Cosford)<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<table class=\"spec\" style=\"margin-top:26px\">\n<caption>Marks at a glance<\/caption>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th>Mark<\/th>\n<td>Engine, role and notes<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Defiant Mk I<\/th>\n<td>Rolls-Royce Merlin III (~1,030 hp); original day\/night fighter with the Type A turret<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Defiant Mk II<\/th>\n<td>Rolls-Royce Merlin XX (~1,280 hp); improved night fighter, extra fuel, often AI radar<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Defiant TT Mk I<\/th>\n<td>Purpose-built target tug with towing gear; the type\u2019s most numerous later role<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Defiant TT Mk III<\/th>\n<td>Fighter airframes converted to target tugs for training duties<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Air-sea rescue<\/th>\n<td>Defiants adapted to carry and drop dinghies to downed aircrew<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"sec\">\n<div class=\"wrap\">\n<p class=\"kicker\">Powerplant &amp; Heritage<\/p>\n<h2>The engine, the turret and the Defiant\u2019s second career<\/h2>\n<div class=\"gd\">\n<details>\n<summary><span class=\"num\">06<\/span><span class=\"gt\">The Rolls-Royce Merlin: the engine that powered the Boulton Paul Defiant<\/span><span class=\"pm\">+<\/span><\/summary>\n<div class=\"gd-body\">\n<p>The Defiant shared its heart with Britain\u2019s most famous fighters: the Rolls-Royce Merlin, a liquid-cooled V12 that also powered the Hurricane, Spitfire, Lancaster and Mosquito. The Mk I used the Merlin III of roughly 1,030 hp; the Mk II adopted the Merlin XX of around 1,280 hp, which restored some of the performance lost to the turret and gave the night-fighter version useful extra height and speed.<\/p>\n<p>The same engine that made the single-seat fighters so formidable could only do so much for the Defiant, because it had to lift a turret, its hydraulics and a second crewman. That is the essential engineering story of the aircraft: a first-class engine asked to carry a heavier, more complex airframe than its rivals.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/details>\n<details>\n<summary><span class=\"num\">07<\/span><span class=\"gt\">The Boulton Paul Defiant\u2019s second career: night fighter, target tug and radar-jammer<\/span><span class=\"pm\">+<\/span><\/summary>\n<div class=\"gd-body\">\n<p>Withdrawn from daylight combat, the Defiant became a genuinely effective night fighter during the Blitz of 1940\u201341. At night the trainable turret came into its own: the pilot could slide beneath a bomber and hold station while the gunner fired up into it. For part of that winter the Defiant claimed more night victories than any other RAF type, and later aircraft carried early AI radar.<\/p>\n<p>As dedicated night fighters replaced it, the Defiant moved into support work that would outlast its fighting career. Hundreds served as target tugs \u2014 towing sleeves for gunnery training \u2014 while others flew air-sea rescue, dropping dinghies to downed aircrew, and a number flew \u201cMoonshine\u201d and \u201cMandrel\u201d electronic-countermeasures sorties, spoofing and jamming German radar. It was an unglamorous but valuable end to the story of Britain\u2019s turret fighter.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/details>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"sec\">\n<div class=\"wrap\">\n<p class=\"kicker\">In Depth<\/p>\n<h2>The Boulton Paul Defiant, examined<\/h2>\n<p class=\"lead\" style=\"margin-bottom:22px\">Nineteen deeper questions about the turret fighter \u2014 its rivals, its crews, its makers, its night war, its overseas service, its preservation and its meaning.<\/p>\n<div class=\"gd\">\n<details>\n<summary><span class=\"num\">08<\/span><span class=\"gt\">The Boulton Paul Defiant vs the Hurricane and Spitfire<\/span><span class=\"pm\">+<\/span><\/summary>\n<div class=\"gd-body\">\n<p>The comparison is unavoidable, because all three shared the same Rolls-Royce Merlin. The Hurricane and Spitfire were single-seat fighters with eight forward-firing .303 Brownings; the Defiant was a two-seat fighter with four guns in a turret and none pointing ahead.<\/p>\n<p>The extra crewman, the turret and its hydraulics cost the Defiant perhaps 30\u201340 mph against a Hurricane and far more against a Spitfire, and denied it any ability to fight head-on or make a slashing pass. Against another fighter these were crippling handicaps.<\/p>\n<p>Against a bomber, the gap narrowed \u2014 a Defiant crew could hold fire on a target from a beam position the single-seaters could not sustain. But 1940 was decided by fighter-versus-fighter combat, and there the Defiant was simply outclassed by its own stablemates.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/details>\n<details>\n<summary><span class=\"num\">09<\/span><span class=\"gt\">Inside the turret: the Boulton Paul Defiant gunner\u2019s job<\/span><span class=\"pm\">+<\/span><\/summary>\n<div class=\"gd-body\">\n<p>The gunner sat in the power-operated Type A turret behind the pilot, with four Brownings and a reflector sight, cut off from his pilot except by intercom. He had no flying controls and, in an emergency, a notoriously difficult escape past the turret and the aircraft\u2019s slipstream.<\/p>\n<p>His job demanded a different kind of nerve from a single-seat pilot\u2019s. He could not choose the aircraft\u2019s path; he could only aim and fire as the pilot manoeuvred, trusting the man in front to put him in a firing position and to get them both home.<\/p>\n<p>At night the partnership was everything: the pilot flew formation on a barely visible bomber while the gunner laid his guns and fired upward into it. When it worked, it was deadly; it also asked a great deal of two men working blind in the dark.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/details>\n<details>\n<summary><span class=\"num\">10<\/span><span class=\"gt\">Boulton Paul Aircraft: the company behind the Defiant<\/span><span class=\"pm\">+<\/span><\/summary>\n<div class=\"gd-body\">\n<p>Boulton Paul Aircraft, based at Pendeford in Wolverhampton, grew out of the earlier Boulton &amp; Paul engineering firm of Norwich. By the 1930s it had become a specialist in one thing above all: powered gun turrets.<\/p>\n<p>That expertise won the company the F.9\/35 contract and shaped the Defiant. Boulton Paul turrets would go on to arm many British bombers, so the firm\u2019s influence on the air war extended far beyond its own most famous aircraft.<\/p>\n<p>Today the Boulton Paul Association preserves that heritage at the company\u2019s old site, including a full-scale Defiant replica \u2014 a reminder that Wolverhampton, not just the great southern factories, helped build Britain\u2019s air defences.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/details>\n<details>\n<summary><span class=\"num\">11<\/span><span class=\"gt\">John Dudley North and the design of the Defiant<\/span><span class=\"pm\">+<\/span><\/summary>\n<div class=\"gd-body\">\n<p>The Defiant was the work of Boulton Paul\u2019s long-serving chief engineer and managing director, John Dudley North, one of the more thoughtful British aircraft designers of his generation and an early advocate of powered gun turrets.<\/p>\n<p>North produced a clean, modern, all-metal monoplane that was, as a piece of aircraft design, perfectly sound. Its retractable undercarriage, enclosed cockpit and stressed-skin construction were fully up to date for the late 1930s.<\/p>\n<p>The flaw lay not in North\u2019s execution but in the requirement he was answering. He built exactly what the Air Ministry asked for \u2014 a turret fighter \u2014 and did it well; the concept, not the aircraft, was the mistake.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/details>\n<details>\n<summary><span class=\"num\">12<\/span><span class=\"gt\">The squadrons that flew the Boulton Paul Defiant<\/span><span class=\"pm\">+<\/span><\/summary>\n<div class=\"gd-body\">\n<p>The Defiant is inseparable from a handful of squadrons. No. 264 Squadron was the pioneer, taking the type into action over Dunkirk and later making a success of it at night. No. 141 Squadron suffered the type\u2019s worst single day on 19 July 1940.<\/p>\n<p>In the night-fighter role, units such as Nos. 96, 151, 256 and 264 defended British cities through the Blitz, while No. 307 (Polish) Squadron \u2014 \u201cLw\u00f3w\u201d \u2014 flew Defiants including the survivor N1671.<\/p>\n<p>Later, Defiant target-tug and air-sea-rescue flights served across the RAF and Fleet Air Arm at home and overseas, spreading the type far beyond the front-line fighter squadrons that first flew it.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/details>\n<details>\n<summary><span class=\"num\">13<\/span><span class=\"gt\">The Boulton Paul Defiant\u2019s target-tug and support career<\/span><span class=\"pm\">+<\/span><\/summary>\n<div class=\"gd-body\">\n<p>Once withdrawn from fighting, the Defiant became one of the RAF\u2019s standard target tugs. Purpose-built TT Mk I and converted TT Mk III aircraft towed sleeve targets for fighter and anti-aircraft gunnery training across Britain and in theatres such as India and the Middle East.<\/p>\n<p>Air-sea-rescue Defiants searched coastal waters for downed aircrew, and small numbers flew the \u201cMoonshine\u201d and \u201cMandrel\u201d electronic-countermeasures sorties that helped confuse German radar.<\/p>\n<p>These roles were unglamorous, but they kept hundreds of airframes usefully employed for years, and they are the reason the Defiant\u2019s total service life stretched well beyond its brief and bloody career as a fighter.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/details>\n<details>\n<summary><span class=\"num\">14<\/span><span class=\"gt\">How many Boulton Paul Defiants were built?<\/span><span class=\"pm\">+<\/span><\/summary>\n<div class=\"gd-body\">\n<p>Production is usually given as about 1,064 aircraft of all marks, though sources differ on the exact figure and on how the total divides between fighters, night fighters and target tugs.<\/p>\n<p>The main fighter marks were the Merlin III\u2013powered Mk I and the Merlin XX\u2013powered Mk II, with large numbers of later airframes completed or converted as target tugs and for air-sea rescue.<\/p>\n<p>Because so many were rebuilt from one role into another during their service, any precise breakdown should be treated with caution \u2014 which is why this page gives the total as approximate.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/details>\n<details>\n<summary><span class=\"num\">15<\/span><span class=\"gt\">Why the turret fighter failed \u2014 and what it teaches<\/span><span class=\"pm\">+<\/span><\/summary>\n<div class=\"gd-body\">\n<p>The Defiant failed as a day fighter for one fundamental reason: it was optimised for attacking bombers at a time when the decisive threat turned out to be enemy fighters. No amount of crew courage could compensate for having no forward guns and inferior performance.<\/p>\n<p>The deeper lesson is about doctrine. British planners had built an aircraft around a confident prediction about the shape of the coming air war, and the prediction was wrong. When the escort fighter appeared, the whole category of turret fighters \u2014 Defiant and Blackburn Roc alike \u2014 was obsolete.<\/p>\n<p>Yet the Defiant\u2019s night-fighter and support careers show that a flawed aircraft is not always a useless one. Withdrawn from the role that killed its crews, it went on to do years of valuable work \u2014 a more nuanced story than the \u201cworst fighter of the war\u201d caricature suggests.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/details>\n<details>\n<summary><span class=\"num\">19<\/span><span class=\"gt\">How the Defiant actually worked as a night fighter<\/span><span class=\"pm\">+<\/span><\/summary>\n<div class=\"gd-body\">\n<p>Night fighting in 1940 was a slow, patient business. Ground controllers using early radar vectored a fighter toward a raider; searchlights and the glow of fires helped the crew make visual contact; then the fighter tried to close in without being seen.<\/p>\n<p>This is where the Defiant\u2019s turret paid off. Rather than needing to point the whole aircraft at the target, the pilot could formate slightly below and to one side of a bomber, matching its course, while the gunner trained his four guns and fired up into it.<\/p>\n<p>It demanded fine flying and good teamwork, but it turned the Defiant\u2019s day-fighter weakness \u2014 the inability to bring guns to bear head-on \u2014 into a night-fighter strength, letting the crew attack from a position the bomber\u2019s own gunners could barely cover.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/details>\n<details>\n<summary><span class=\"num\">20<\/span><span class=\"gt\">The Defiant\u2019s reputation: separating myth from record<\/span><span class=\"pm\">+<\/span><\/summary>\n<div class=\"gd-body\">\n<p>The Defiant is often written off as one of the worst fighters of the war. As a day fighter that verdict is essentially fair \u2014 the concept was unsound and the losses were severe. But as a blanket judgement on the aircraft it is misleading.<\/p>\n<p>The same type that was slaughtered in daylight became, for a season, the RAF\u2019s most successful night fighter, and then served usefully for years as a target tug, air-sea-rescue aircraft and radar-jammer.<\/p>\n<p>A fairer summary is the one this page\u2019s chosen video puts in its title: a good aircraft built around a flawed concept. Judged against what it was asked to do in daylight, it failed; judged as a whole career, it was far from useless.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/details>\n<details>\n<summary><span class=\"num\">21<\/span><span class=\"gt\">The Boulton Paul Defiant in the wider story of the air war<\/span><span class=\"pm\">+<\/span><\/summary>\n<div class=\"gd-body\">\n<p>The Defiant matters partly because of what it reveals about how air forces prepare for wars that have not yet happened. Britain built it in good faith to counter a threat \u2014 the unescorted bomber fleet \u2014 that the technology of escort fighters was about to reshape.<\/p>\n<p>Its story runs alongside the Hurricane and Spitfire, the aircraft that actually won the daylight battle, and it throws their success into sharper relief: the difference between the turret fighter and the eight-gun single-seater was, in the end, the difference between the wrong idea and the right one.<\/p>\n<p>That is why the Defiant is worth remembering honestly rather than mocking. It is a case study in doctrine, courage and adaptation \u2014 and in the men who took a flawed aircraft to war and made what they could of it.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/details>\n<details>\n<summary><span class=\"num\">22<\/span><span class=\"gt\">The human cost: Defiant losses and their crews<\/span><span class=\"pm\">+<\/span><\/summary>\n<div class=\"gd-body\">\n<p>The Defiant\u2019s daylight failure was measured in men as well as machines. Each aircraft carried two, and the difficulty of escaping the turret meant that when a Defiant went down, the odds for its gunner were especially poor.<\/p>\n<p>Squadrons such as No. 141 lost experienced crews in minutes on their worst days, and the aircraft\u2019s reputation among aircrew suffered accordingly, even as its later night successes restored some of its standing.<\/p>\n<p>It is a reminder that the debate over the turret-fighter concept was never merely technical. Behind every entry in the loss records was a pilot and a gunner, and the decision to withdraw the Defiant from daylight was, in part, a decision to stop spending their lives on a flawed idea.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/details>\n<details>\n<summary><span class=\"num\">23<\/span><span class=\"gt\">The Boulton Paul Defiant overseas and with the Fleet Air Arm<\/span><span class=\"pm\">+<\/span><\/summary>\n<div class=\"gd-body\">\n<p>Although the Defiant\u2019s fighting was concentrated over Britain and the Channel, the aircraft served more widely in its support roles. Target-tug and air-sea-rescue Defiants operated in theatres including India and the Middle East, supporting training and rescue far from the home front.<\/p>\n<p>The Fleet Air Arm also used Defiants for target-towing duties, and a small number of Defiant target tugs were operated by USAAF units based in Britain.<\/p>\n<p>None of this was front-line combat, but it spread the type across several countries and kept airframes usefully employed, which is why the operations map shows the Defiant reaching well beyond its brief fighter career in north-west Europe.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/details>\n<details>\n<summary><span class=\"num\">24<\/span><span class=\"gt\">Preserving N1671: the last Boulton Paul Defiant<\/span><span class=\"pm\">+<\/span><\/summary>\n<div class=\"gd-body\">\n<p>The survival of N1671 was not guaranteed. Set aside in 1944 after service with No. 307 (Polish) Squadron and other units, it passed through storage and display before being carefully restored \u2014 work carried out by the Medway Aircraft Preservation Society at Rochester \u2014 and returned to the RAF Museum.<\/p>\n<p>It has been displayed at Hendon and, since the early 2010s, at the RAF Museum Midlands site at Cosford, where it stands today as the sole surviving intact original of its type.<\/p>\n<p>Because no Defiant flies, this one airframe carries the whole physical legacy of the design. It is the reason the turret fighter is more than a set of photographs and statistics \u2014 and the closest anyone will get to the real aircraft.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/details>\n<details>\n<summary><span class=\"num\">25<\/span><span class=\"gt\">The Defiant and the birth of RAF night-fighting<\/span><span class=\"pm\">+<\/span><\/summary>\n<div class=\"gd-body\">\n<p>When the Defiant was pushed into the night role in late 1940, RAF night-fighting was still in its infancy. Interceptions depended on ground-controlled radar stations vectoring a fighter roughly toward a raider, and on searchlights, moonlight and luck to complete the contact.<\/p>\n<p>The Defiant arrived in this world as a stopgap, but a well-suited one. Its steady handling and trainable turret let crews attack bombers they could shadow but not out-turn, and its successes helped prove that radar-directed night interception could actually work.<\/p>\n<p>By the time purpose-built types such as the Beaufighter and Mosquito matured, the techniques the Defiant had helped pioneer were established RAF practice. Its night career was brief, but it fell at a formative moment in the story of air defence.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/details>\n<details>\n<summary><span class=\"num\">26<\/span><span class=\"gt\">What became of the Defiants<\/span><span class=\"pm\">+<\/span><\/summary>\n<div class=\"gd-body\">\n<p>Very few Defiants survived the scrapping that followed the war. As a type with no post-war front-line future and a poor early reputation, it was disposed of in numbers, and unlike the Spitfire it attracted no wave of civilian preservation.<\/p>\n<p>The result is one of the rarest survival records of any major RAF type: a single intact original, N1671, plus a full-scale replica at Wolverhampton and various turret and component relics in collections.<\/p>\n<p>That scarcity is itself part of the Defiant\u2019s story. The aircraft that embodied a discarded idea was, fittingly, almost entirely discarded \u2014 which makes the one that remains all the more worth preserving and understanding.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/details>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"sec\" style=\"background:#f6f8fb\">\n<div class=\"wrap\">\n<p class=\"kicker\">Operators &amp; Units<\/p>\n<h2>Who flew the Boulton Paul Defiant<\/h2>\n<p class=\"lead\" style=\"margin-bottom:22px\">The Defiant was almost entirely a Royal Air Force aircraft, flown by a small group of famous squadrons in the fighter and night-fighter roles, then far more widely in support duties.<\/p>\n<table class=\"spec\">\n<caption>Principal Boulton Paul Defiant operators and units<\/caption>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<th>No. 264 Squadron<\/th>\n<td>First and most famous Defiant unit \u2014 Dunkirk, then night defence<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>No. 141 Squadron<\/th>\n<td>Mauled on 19 July 1940; later a night-fighter unit<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>No. 307 (Polish) Squadron<\/th>\n<td>Night fighters; flew the surviving airframe N1671<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Nos. 96, 151, 256 Squadrons<\/th>\n<td>Blitz night-fighter defence of British cities<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Royal Air Force (overseas)<\/th>\n<td>Target-tug and air-sea-rescue flights in India and the Middle East<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>Fleet Air Arm<\/th>\n<td>Target-towing duties with the Royal Navy<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<th>USAAF (in Britain)<\/th>\n<td>Small numbers of Defiant target tugs operated from British bases<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"sec\" style=\"background:#f6f8fb\">\n<div class=\"wrap\">\n<p class=\"kicker\">Timeline<\/p>\n<h2>The Boulton Paul Defiant: a service record<\/h2>\n<p class=\"lead\" style=\"margin-bottom:24px\">From a 1935 specification to the end of second-line service a decade later \u2014 the compressed rise, fall and reinvention of Britain\u2019s turret fighter.<\/p>\n<div class=\"tl\">\n<div class=\"row\">\n<div class=\"yr\">1935<\/div>\n<div class=\"ev\">Air Ministry issues Specification F.9\/35 for a two-seat turret fighter<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"row\">\n<div class=\"yr\">1937<\/div>\n<div class=\"ev\">The prototype Defiant first flies on 11 August at Wolverhampton<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"row\">\n<div class=\"yr\">1939<\/div>\n<div class=\"ev\">Defiant Mk I enters RAF service with No. 264 Squadron (December)<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"row\">\n<div class=\"yr\">1940<\/div>\n<div class=\"ev\">No. 264 Squadron\u2019s turret fighters score heavily over Dunkirk (29 May)<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"row\">\n<div class=\"yr\">1940<\/div>\n<div class=\"ev\">No. 141 Squadron mauled off Folkestone on 19 July \u2014 six of nine lost<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"row\">\n<div class=\"yr\">1940<\/div>\n<div class=\"ev\">Heavy Battle of Britain losses; the Defiant is withdrawn from day fighting<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"row\">\n<div class=\"yr\">1940<\/div>\n<div class=\"ev\">Reborn as a night fighter defending British cities during the Blitz<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"row\">\n<div class=\"yr\">1941<\/div>\n<div class=\"ev\">Mk II with the Merlin XX and AI radar improves night performance<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"row\">\n<div class=\"yr\">1942<\/div>\n<div class=\"ev\">Eased out of front-line night fighting by the Beaufighter and Mosquito<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"row\">\n<div class=\"yr\">1942<\/div>\n<div class=\"ev\">Converted en masse to target tugs; air-sea-rescue Defiants enter service<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"row\">\n<div class=\"yr\">1943<\/div>\n<div class=\"ev\">Defiants fly \u201cMoonshine\u201d and \u201cMandrel\u201d radar-jamming missions<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"row\">\n<div class=\"yr\">1945<\/div>\n<div class=\"ev\">Final second-line service ends; about 1,064 built in all<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"sec\">\n<div class=\"wrap\">\n<p class=\"kicker\">Stories &amp; Eyewitnesses<\/p>\n<h2>The Boulton Paul Defiant in twenty stories<\/h2>\n<p class=\"lead\" style=\"margin-bottom:24px\">From the specification that created it to the single airframe that survives, the Defiant\u2019s story is one of a bold idea, a brutal reckoning and an unexpected second life. Scroll through the cards and open each for the detail.<\/p>\n<div class=\"carou\">\n<div class=\"track\" id=\"deftrack\">\n<div class=\"scard\">\n<div class=\"st\">The concept<\/div>\n<h3>A fighter designed to shoot backwards<\/h3>\n<p>The Defiant\u2019s guns all pointed away from the direction of flight \u2014 a deliberate, doctrine-driven choice.<\/p>\n<details>\n<summary>Read more<\/summary>\n<p style=\"margin-top:10px\">The Defiant carried no forward armament at all. Its four .303 Brownings sat in a power-operated turret behind the pilot, aimed by a gunner who could sweep them through a wide arc to the sides and rear.<\/p>\n<p>The idea was that such a fighter could destroy bombers from angles a fixed-gun fighter could never hold \u2014 sliding alongside a formation and raking it, rather than making the fleeting head-on or stern pass of a conventional interceptor.<\/p>\n<p>It was a serious answer to the air war planners expected in the mid-1930s. It was simply the wrong war. When the fast single-seat escort fighter arrived, an aircraft that could not shoot forwards was in deep trouble.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"scard\">\n<div class=\"st\">The specification<\/div>\n<h3>F.9\/35: the Air Ministry orders a turret fighter<\/h3>\n<p>A 1935 requirement crystallised the turret-fighter idea into an official specification.<\/p>\n<details>\n<summary>Read more<\/summary>\n<p style=\"margin-top:10px\">Specification F.9\/35 called for a two-seat day and night fighter with its armament concentrated in a power-operated turret rather than in fixed guns. It was a genuine attempt to codify the \u201cbomber destroyer\u201d of the future.<\/p>\n<p>Boulton Paul and Hawker both submitted designs. Boulton Paul\u2019s, drawing on the firm\u2019s turret expertise, won production as the Defiant; Hawker\u2019s Hotspur was abandoned.<\/p>\n<p>The specification reflected the conviction that unescorted enemy bombers, not fighters, would be the decisive threat over Britain \u2014 a conviction the events of 1940 would comprehensively overturn.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"scard\">\n<div class=\"st\">The turret<\/div>\n<h3>Four guns in a hydraulic dome<\/h3>\n<p>The Boulton Paul Type A turret was the aircraft\u2019s reason for existing.<\/p>\n<details>\n<summary>Read more<\/summary>\n<p style=\"margin-top:10px\">The Type A turret was a compact, power-operated design that Boulton Paul developed from a French SAMM turret designed by J. B. A. de Boysson. It carried four Browning machine guns and could be trained quickly through a wide arc.<\/p>\n<p>The whole aircraft was built around it. The turret set the fuselage width, demanded the second crewman, added weight and drag, and drove the two-seat layout \u2014 every compromise in the Defiant traces back to that dome.<\/p>\n<p>It was, in isolation, an impressive piece of engineering, and its power operation gave the gunner far better control than the hand-worked guns of earlier types. The problem was never the turret; it was the aircraft built to carry only that.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"scard\">\n<div class=\"st\">First flight<\/div>\n<h3>1937: the Defiant takes to the air<\/h3>\n<p>The prototype flew two years before the war it was built for.<\/p>\n<details>\n<summary>Read more<\/summary>\n<p style=\"margin-top:10px\">The Defiant prototype, K8310, first flew on 11 August 1937 from Boulton Paul\u2019s Pendeford works at Wolverhampton, initially without its turret fitted.<\/p>\n<p>Turret installation, hydraulics and development flying took time, and the type did not reach an operational squadron \u2014 No. 264 \u2014 until December 1939, more than two years later.<\/p>\n<p>By the time it entered service, fighter development had moved on again. The Bf 109 was faster and better armed, and the escort-fighter problem the Defiant ignored was already becoming real. It was, in a sense, obsolete on arrival.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"scard\">\n<div class=\"st\">Dunkirk<\/div>\n<h3>29 May 1940: the day the trick worked<\/h3>\n<p>For one day over Dunkirk, the turret fighter looked unstoppable.<\/p>\n<details>\n<summary>Read more<\/summary>\n<p style=\"margin-top:10px\">On 29 May 1940, covering the Dunkirk evacuation, No. 264 Squadron claimed a remarkable tally in a single day. German pilots, taking the Defiant for a Hurricane, dived on it from behind \u2014 and flew straight into the massed fire of its turret.<\/p>\n<p>For a few hours the concept looked vindicated. The turret gave the Defiant a lethal surprise from exactly the angle a fighter pilot considered safe.<\/p>\n<p>As with every claim made in the chaos of 1940, the totals were later found to be greatly inflated. But the squadron did inflict real losses, and the shock it delivered was real enough to spread caution through the German fighter units.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"scard\">\n<div class=\"st\">The reckoning<\/div>\n<h3>When the Luftwaffe learned the trick<\/h3>\n<p>The Defiant\u2019s advantage depended entirely on the enemy\u2019s mistake.<\/p>\n<details>\n<summary>Read more<\/summary>\n<p style=\"margin-top:10px\">The surprise could only work once. Once German pilots recognised the Defiant\u2019s silhouette and understood where its guns were, they simply attacked from head-on or from below, where it had no guns at all.<\/p>\n<p>They also exploited its lack of speed and agility, using their superior performance to dictate every engagement. The turret\u2019s wide arc meant nothing if the attacker never entered it.<\/p>\n<p>The same aircraft that had scored so heavily over Dunkirk began to be shot down in numbers. The turret fighter\u2019s brief day in the sun was over almost as soon as it had begun.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"scard\">\n<div class=\"st\">The disaster<\/div>\n<h3>19 July 1940: six of nine<\/h3>\n<p>No. 141 Squadron\u2019s first day-fighter action was a catastrophe.<\/p>\n<details>\n<summary>Read more<\/summary>\n<p style=\"margin-top:10px\">On 19 July 1940 No. 141 Squadron sent nine Defiants to patrol off Folkestone. They were bounced by Bf 109s of JG 51 attacking from above and behind the turret\u2019s effective arc.<\/p>\n<p>Within minutes six of the nine had been shot down and others badly damaged; the squadron was effectively wrecked in a single engagement and was promptly pulled back north.<\/p>\n<p>The action became the clearest single proof that the Defiant could not survive as a day fighter against modern single-seat opponents. It is still cited as the moment the turret-fighter idea died in daylight.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"scard\">\n<div class=\"st\">Battle of Britain<\/div>\n<h3>264 Squadron\u2019s second mauling<\/h3>\n<p>Given another chance in the daylight battle, the Defiant was cut up again.<\/p>\n<details>\n<summary>Read more<\/summary>\n<p style=\"margin-top:10px\">No. 264 Squadron, the type\u2019s most experienced unit, was thrown back into the daylight Battle of Britain in late August 1940 and again suffered heavy losses in a matter of days.<\/p>\n<p>Even skilled, battle-tested crews could not overcome the aircraft\u2019s basic vulnerabilities against Bf 109s that chose the angle of every attack.<\/p>\n<p>It confirmed what 141 Squadron\u2019s disaster had already shown. By the end of August, Fighter Command had accepted that the Defiant had no future as a day fighter.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"scard\">\n<div class=\"st\">Withdrawal<\/div>\n<h3>Pulled from the daylight battle<\/h3>\n<p>By late summer 1940 the verdict on the day fighter was in.<\/p>\n<details>\n<summary>Read more<\/summary>\n<p style=\"margin-top:10px\">After the losses of July and August, the Defiant was withdrawn from daylight fighting. Fighter Command accepted, without ceremony, that the turret-fighter concept had failed in the role it was built for.<\/p>\n<p>It was a rare and clear-eyed admission that an entire category of aircraft had been a mistake \u2014 made while the battle was still raging.<\/p>\n<p>But rather than scrap the type, the RAF sent it into the dark. There, against a completely different tactical problem, the Defiant would find that its worst features hardly mattered.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"scard\">\n<div class=\"st\">Night fighter<\/div>\n<h3>Redemption after dark<\/h3>\n<p>The features that doomed the Defiant by day suited it by night.<\/p>\n<details>\n<summary>Read more<\/summary>\n<p style=\"margin-top:10px\">A night fighter of 1940 did not dogfight; it stalked. Guided by ground control and searchlights, it crept up on a bomber it could barely see and tried to hold formation long enough to shoot.<\/p>\n<p>For that, the Defiant was well suited. Its pilot could ease the aircraft beneath a raider and fly steady station while the gunner fired upward into the bomber\u2019s unprotected belly \u2014 an almost ideal use of a trainable turret.<\/p>\n<p>What had been a fatal blind spot by day became an advantage by night. The Defiant\u2019s second career had begun.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"scard\">\n<div class=\"st\">The Blitz winter<\/div>\n<h3>The RAF\u2019s top night-killer for a season<\/h3>\n<p>For a stretch of the winter, no RAF type shot down more at night.<\/p>\n<details>\n<summary>Read more<\/summary>\n<p style=\"margin-top:10px\">During the height of the night Blitz in the winter of 1940\u201341, Defiant squadrons defending British cities did remarkably well, and for a period claimed more German aircraft after dark than any other RAF fighter type.<\/p>\n<p>Squadrons such as No. 264 and No. 141 \u2014 the very units mauled in daylight \u2014 found new purpose and real success in the night role.<\/p>\n<p>It was a genuine, if temporary, vindication of the aircraft, if not of the doctrine that created it: the right tool for the night war, even if it had been the wrong one for the day.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"scard\">\n<div class=\"st\">Radar<\/div>\n<h3>Eyes for the darkness<\/h3>\n<p>Later Defiants carried early airborne interception radar.<\/p>\n<details>\n<summary>Read more<\/summary>\n<p style=\"margin-top:10px\">As airborne interception (AI) radar matured, it was fitted to Defiant night fighters, helping crews find their targets in the dark instead of relying on searchlights, ground control and luck.<\/p>\n<p>The radar-equipped Defiant could close the final distance to a bomber more reliably, though its cramped two-seat layout made fitting and operating the early sets a challenge.<\/p>\n<p>The Mk II, with its more powerful Merlin XX, made a better radar-carrying night fighter than the early Mk I, buying the type a little more time before purpose-built aircraft replaced it.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"scard\">\n<div class=\"st\">The successor<\/div>\n<h3>Beaufighter and Mosquito take over<\/h3>\n<p>Dedicated night fighters ended the Defiant\u2019s front-line career.<\/p>\n<details>\n<summary>Read more<\/summary>\n<p style=\"margin-top:10px\">The Defiant was always a stopgap night fighter. The Bristol Beaufighter and later the de Havilland Mosquito \u2014 twin-engined, radar-equipped and heavily armed with forward-firing cannon \u2014 were far more capable.<\/p>\n<p>As those types reached the squadrons through 1941 and 1942, the single-engined, turret-armed Defiant was steadily withdrawn from front-line night defence.<\/p>\n<p>It was the same story as in daylight: a well-meant interim design overtaken by aircraft built specifically for the job. But this time the Defiant had done real, valuable work before it stepped aside.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"scard\">\n<div class=\"st\">Target tug<\/div>\n<h3>The Defiant\u2019s longest career<\/h3>\n<p>More Defiants ended up towing targets than ever fought as fighters.<\/p>\n<details>\n<summary>Read more<\/summary>\n<p style=\"margin-top:10px\">Hundreds of Defiants were built new or converted as TT Mk I and TT Mk III target tugs, towing sleeve and banner targets for air and ground gunnery practice across the RAF and Fleet Air Arm.<\/p>\n<p>It was unglamorous but essential work: every gunner who trained against a towed target owed something to the aircraft dragging it around the sky.<\/p>\n<p>The target-tug role became the type\u2019s most numerous and longest-lasting job, keeping Defiants in service well after their fighting days were done.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"scard\">\n<div class=\"st\">Air-sea rescue<\/div>\n<h3>Dinghies for downed aircrew<\/h3>\n<p>Defiants helped save the lives of airmen in the sea.<\/p>\n<details>\n<summary>Read more<\/summary>\n<p style=\"margin-top:10px\">In the air-sea-rescue role, Defiants searched the Channel and North Sea for aircrew who had ditched or baled out, circling their positions and dropping dinghies, supplies and marker floats until rescue launches could reach them.<\/p>\n<p>For a man in the water off the English coast, the sight of a circling Defiant could be the difference between rescue and death.<\/p>\n<p>It was quiet, vital duty carried out well away from the headlines of the fighter war \u2014 and one of the more humane uses the aircraft was ever put to.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"scard\">\n<div class=\"st\">Electronic warfare<\/div>\n<h3>The Defiant that jammed radar<\/h3>\n<p>Some Defiants flew among the war\u2019s earliest electronic-countermeasures missions.<\/p>\n<details>\n<summary>Read more<\/summary>\n<p style=\"margin-top:10px\">A number of Defiants flew \u201cMoonshine\u201d and \u201cMandrel\u201d sorties, carrying equipment to spoof and jam German early-warning radar. Moonshine re-transmitted enemy radar pulses to make a handful of aircraft look like a huge raid; Mandrel jammed the German Freya radar chain outright.<\/p>\n<p>By faking raids and blinding radar, these Defiants helped draw German fighters into the wrong place and cover real bomber streams.<\/p>\n<p>It was pioneering electronic-warfare work \u2014 yet another unexpected second life for an aircraft that had failed so publicly at its first.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"scard\">\n<div class=\"st\">The gunners<\/div>\n<h3>The men in the turret<\/h3>\n<p>A Defiant\u2019s fate rested on two men working almost blind to each other.<\/p>\n<details>\n<summary>Read more<\/summary>\n<p style=\"margin-top:10px\">The Defiant\u2019s gunner fought alone in his power-operated dome, linked to the pilot only by intercom, with no way to influence where the aircraft went. He could only aim and fire as the pilot manoeuvred beneath and around the enemy.<\/p>\n<p>That made trust between the two men absolute. A good crew moved as one animal \u2014 the pilot reading the fight and positioning the aircraft, the gunner laying his four guns and firing at the fleeting moment they bore.<\/p>\n<p>It also made the gunner terribly exposed. When a Defiant was hit, escaping the turret was hard, and the loss records show how many gunners never got out. Theirs was one of the most dangerous jobs in Fighter Command.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"scard\">\n<div class=\"st\">The pilots<\/div>\n<h3>Flying a fighter you could not aim<\/h3>\n<p>Defiant pilots had to unlearn everything a fighter pilot expected.<\/p>\n<details>\n<summary>Read more<\/summary>\n<p style=\"margin-top:10px\">A single-seat fighter pilot pointed his whole aircraft at the enemy and fired. A Defiant pilot could do no such thing; he had no guns, and his job was to fly his gunner into a firing position and hold it steady.<\/p>\n<p>It demanded a different temperament \u2014 discipline and airmanship over the slashing aggression of the single-seater \u2014 and it worked best at night, when patience and precise formation flying counted for more than raw dogfighting.<\/p>\n<p>By day, against Bf 109s that dictated every pass, even the best pilots could do little. By night, those same skills helped make the Defiant one of the RAF\u2019s most effective interceptors of the Blitz.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"scard\">\n<div class=\"st\">The Roc<\/div>\n<h3>The Defiant\u2019s naval cousin<\/h3>\n<p>The Fleet Air Arm\u2019s turret fighter shared the same flawed idea.<\/p>\n<details>\n<summary>Read more<\/summary>\n<p style=\"margin-top:10px\">The Royal Navy pursued the same turret-fighter concept with the Blackburn Roc, a carrier fighter that also carried its four guns in a Boulton Paul turret and no fixed forward armament.<\/p>\n<p>The Roc was heavier and slower even than the Defiant, and was an almost complete failure as a fighter, quickly relegated to second-line duties.<\/p>\n<p>Seen together, the Defiant and the Roc show that the turret fighter was not one designer\u2019s mistake but a whole strand of 1930s British thinking that the war swept away.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"scard\">\n<div class=\"st\">The survivor<\/div>\n<h3>N1671: the only one left<\/h3>\n<p>A single original Defiant survives \u2014 and it does not fly.<\/p>\n<details>\n<summary>Read more<\/summary>\n<p style=\"margin-top:10px\">The sole surviving intact original, Defiant Mk I N1671, is preserved at the RAF Museum Midlands at Cosford. It served as a night fighter with No. 307 (Polish) Squadron before being set aside in 1944.<\/p>\n<p>A full-scale Defiant replica stands at the Boulton Paul Association in Wolverhampton, at the site where the type was built, keeping the company\u2019s heritage alive.<\/p>\n<p>No Defiant is airworthy anywhere in the world. That single static airframe at Cosford is as close as anyone can now get to Britain\u2019s turret fighter.<\/p>\n<\/details>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"cbtns\"><button class=\"cbtn\" onclick=\"document.getElementById('deftrack').scrollBy({left:-380,behavior:'smooth'})\" aria-label=\"Previous\">\u2039<\/button><button class=\"cbtn\" onclick=\"document.getElementById('deftrack').scrollBy({left:380,behavior:'smooth'})\" aria-label=\"Next\">\u203a<\/button><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"sec\" style=\"background:#f6f8fb\">\n<div class=\"wrap\">\n<p class=\"kicker\">Photo Gallery<\/p>\n<h2>The Boulton Paul Defiant in photographs<\/h2>\n<p class=\"lead\" style=\"margin-bottom:24px\">Wartime and museum photographs of the turret fighter \u2014 its squadrons, its distinctive four-gun turret and the sole surviving airframe. Each image is credited to its source below.<\/p>\n<div class=\"gtrack\">\n<figure><img data-opt-id=1869250330  data-opt-src=\"https:\/\/ml5psubhxdln.i.optimole.com\/cb:78--.b845\/w:auto\/h:auto\/q:96\/f:best\/https:\/\/migflug.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/08\/boulton-paul-defiant-mk-i-formation-raf.jpg\"  decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20viewBox%3D%220%200%20100%%20100%%22%20width%3D%22100%%22%20height%3D%22100%%22%20xmlns%3D%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2Fsvg%22%3E%3Crect%20width%3D%22100%%22%20height%3D%22100%%22%20fill%3D%22transparent%22%2F%3E%3C%2Fsvg%3E\" alt=\"Boulton Paul Defiant Mk Is of the Royal Air Force in flight\"><figcaption>Defiant Mk Is in formation. Photo: RAF official photographer (Daventry) \/ IWM (CH 872B). Public domain.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure><img data-opt-id=264552  data-opt-src=\"https:\/\/ml5psubhxdln.i.optimole.com\/cb:78--.b845\/w:auto\/h:auto\/q:96\/f:best\/https:\/\/migflug.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/08\/boulton-paul-defiant-type-a-turret-four-brownings.jpg\"  decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20viewBox%3D%220%200%20100%%20100%%22%20width%3D%22100%%22%20height%3D%22100%%22%20xmlns%3D%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2Fsvg%22%3E%3Crect%20width%3D%22100%%22%20height%3D%22100%%22%20fill%3D%22transparent%22%2F%3E%3C%2Fsvg%3E\" alt=\"Boulton Paul Type A turret with four .303 Browning machine guns\"><figcaption>The Boulton Paul Type A turret with its four .303 Browning guns, RAF Museum Cosford. Photo: Hugh Llewelyn. CC BY-SA 2.0.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure><img data-opt-id=1834899727  data-opt-src=\"https:\/\/ml5psubhxdln.i.optimole.com\/cb:78--.b845\/w:auto\/h:auto\/q:96\/f:best\/https:\/\/migflug.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/08\/boulton-paul-defiant-n3377.jpg\"  decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20viewBox%3D%220%200%20100%%20100%%22%20width%3D%22100%%22%20height%3D%22100%%22%20xmlns%3D%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2Fsvg%22%3E%3Crect%20width%3D%22100%%22%20height%3D%22100%%22%20fill%3D%22transparent%22%2F%3E%3C%2Fsvg%3E\" alt=\"Boulton Paul Defiant N3377 turret fighter\"><figcaption>Boulton Paul Defiant N3377. Photo: San Diego Air &amp; Space Museum Archives (Charles Daniels Collection). Public domain.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure><img data-opt-id=1446700262  data-opt-src=\"https:\/\/ml5psubhxdln.i.optimole.com\/cb:78--.b845\/w:auto\/h:auto\/q:96\/f:best\/https:\/\/migflug.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/08\/boulton-paul-defiant-264-squadron-crew.jpg\"  decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20viewBox%3D%220%200%20100%%20100%%22%20width%3D%22100%%22%20height%3D%22100%%22%20xmlns%3D%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2Fsvg%22%3E%3Crect%20width%3D%22100%%22%20height%3D%22100%%22%20fill%3D%22transparent%22%2F%3E%3C%2Fsvg%3E\" alt=\"Airmen with a Boulton Paul Defiant of No. 264 Squadron RAF\"><figcaption>Airmen with a No. 264 Squadron Defiant. Photo: \u201cwhatsthatpicture\u201d via Flickr. CC BY 2.0.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure><img data-opt-id=1496019012  data-opt-src=\"https:\/\/ml5psubhxdln.i.optimole.com\/cb:78--.b845\/w:auto\/h:auto\/q:96\/f:best\/https:\/\/migflug.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/08\/boulton-paul-defiant-n1671-raf-museum.jpg\"  decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20viewBox%3D%220%200%20100%%20100%%22%20width%3D%22100%%22%20height%3D%22100%%22%20xmlns%3D%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2Fsvg%22%3E%3Crect%20width%3D%22100%%22%20height%3D%22100%%22%20fill%3D%22transparent%22%2F%3E%3C%2Fsvg%3E\" alt=\"Surviving Boulton Paul Defiant N1671 at the RAF Museum\"><figcaption>The sole surviving Defiant, N1671, at the RAF Museum. Photo: Oren Rozen. CC BY-SA 3.0.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure><img data-opt-id=1199440551  data-opt-src=\"https:\/\/ml5psubhxdln.i.optimole.com\/cb:78--.b845\/w:auto\/h:auto\/q:96\/f:best\/https:\/\/migflug.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/08\/boulton-paul-defiant-in-flight.jpg\"  decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20viewBox%3D%220%200%20100%%20100%%22%20width%3D%22100%%22%20height%3D%22100%%22%20xmlns%3D%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2Fsvg%22%3E%3Crect%20width%3D%22100%%22%20height%3D%22100%%22%20fill%3D%22transparent%22%2F%3E%3C%2Fsvg%3E\" alt=\"Boulton Paul Defiant turret fighter in flight\"><figcaption>A Boulton Paul Defiant. Photo: via Wikimedia Commons. Public domain.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"sec\">\n<div class=\"wrap\">\n<p class=\"kicker\">On Film<\/p>\n<h2>The Boulton Paul Defiant on video<\/h2>\n<p class=\"lead\" style=\"margin-bottom:22px\">A concise, well-sourced history of the turret fighter and why its concept faltered by day yet worked at night.<\/p>\n<div class=\"vidwrap\"><iframe src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/re5eRa6BAYo\" title=\"Boulton Paul Defiant: Good Aircraft, Flawed Concept \u2014 Not A Pound For Air To Ground\" loading=\"lazy\" allowfullscreen><\/iframe><\/div>\n<p class=\"vcap\">\u201cBoulton Paul Defiant: Good Aircraft, Flawed Concept\u201d by Not A Pound For Air To Ground \u2014 around 99,000 views and 4,100+ likes on an authoritative aviation-history channel.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"sec\" style=\"background:#f6f8fb\">\n<div class=\"wrap\">\n<p class=\"kicker\">Operations Map<\/p>\n<h2>Where the Boulton Paul Defiant served<\/h2>\n<p class=\"lead\" style=\"font-size:18px;color:#3a4353;max-width:760px;margin:0 auto 30px\">A near single-nation aircraft: designed and built in Britain, fought over the Channel coast in 1940, and used in secondary roles further afield. Toggle the categories to explore where it operated \u2014 and where the last one survives.<\/p>\n<style>#def-map-widget .def-toggle:hover{border-color:#999!important}#def-map-widget .def-toggle:not(.active){color:#999!important;border-color:#E0E0E0!important}#def-map-widget .def-toggle:not(.active) .def-check{opacity:0!important}#def-map-widget .country{fill:#E8ECF1;stroke:#C8D0DA;stroke-width:.4;transition:fill .3s,stroke .3s}#def-map-widget .country:hover{stroke-width:1;stroke:#999}#def-map-widget .country.cat-migflug{fill:#5C91FF;stroke:#3A6FD8;stroke-width:.7}#def-map-widget .country.cat-combat{fill:url(#camo-pattern);stroke:#4A6741;stroke-width:.7}#def-map-widget .country.cat-current{fill:#555;stroke:#333;stroke-width:.7}#def-map-widget .country.cat-former{fill:#C0C0C0;stroke:#999;stroke-width:.5}#def-tooltip .tt-name{font-size:15px;font-weight:700;display:block;margin-bottom:4px}#def-tooltip .tt-cat{font-size:11px;font-weight:400;color:#aaa;display:block;margin-bottom:6px;letter-spacing:.3px}#def-tooltip .tt-fleet{font-size:12px;font-weight:600;color:#ccc;display:block;margin-bottom:4px}#def-tooltip .tt-desc{font-size:12px;color:#ccc;line-height:1.5;display:block}@media(max-width:600px){#def-map-widget .def-toggle{padding:6px 10px!important;font-size:12px!important;gap:5px!important}#def-map-widget .def-toggle div{width:12px!important;height:12px!important}#def-controls{gap:6px!important}#def-count{font-size:13px!important}#def-tooltip{max-width:calc(100vw - 32px)!important;font-size:12px!important;padding:8px 12px!important}#def-tooltip .tt-name{font-size:14px!important}#def-tooltip .tt-cat{font-size:10px!important}#def-tooltip .tt-fleet{font-size:11px!important}#def-tooltip .tt-desc{font-size:11px!important}}@media(max-width:400px){#def-map-widget .def-toggle{padding:5px 8px!important;font-size:11px!important;gap:4px!important}#def-map-widget .def-toggle div{width:10px!important;height:10px!important}#def-controls{gap:4px!important}}<\/style>\n<div id=\"def-map-widget\" style=\"font-family:'Gilroy semiBold','Gilroy regular',Helvetica,Arial,Lucida,sans-serif;max-width:1080px;width:100%;margin:0 auto;\">\n<div id=\"def-map-container\" style=\"width:100%;position:relative\"><svg id=\"def-map-svg\" style=\"width:100%;height:auto;display:block\"><\/svg><\/p>\n<div id=\"def-tooltip\" style=\"position:fixed;background:#1a1a2e;color:#fff;padding:10px 16px;border-radius:0;font-size:13px;font-weight:400;letter-spacing:.3px;pointer-events:auto;opacity:0;transition:opacity .15s;z-index:1000;max-width:360px;line-height:1.5\"><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div id=\"def-controls\" style=\"display:flex;gap:8px;flex-wrap:wrap;justify-content:flex-start;margin-top:12px;\"><button class=\"def-toggle active\" data-cat=\"migflug\" data-full=\"Origin &#038; Manufacturer\" data-short=\"Origin\" style=\"display:flex;align-items:center;gap:6px;padding:8px 12px;border:2px solid #5C91FF;border-radius:0;background:#fff;cursor:pointer;font-family:inherit;font-size:13px;font-weight:600;color:#1a1a2e;white-space:nowrap;transition:all .25s\"><\/p>\n<div style=\"width:14px;height:14px;flex-shrink:0;background:#5C91FF\"><\/div>\n<p><span class=\"def-label\">Origin &#038; Manufacturer<\/span><span class=\"def-check\" style=\"font-size:10px;opacity:1;transition:opacity .2s\">&#10003;<\/span><\/button><button class=\"def-toggle active\" data-cat=\"combat\" data-full=\"Wartime RAF Operations\" data-short=\"Wartime\" style=\"display:flex;align-items:center;gap:6px;padding:8px 12px;border:2px solid #6B8E23;border-radius:0;background:#fff;cursor:pointer;font-family:inherit;font-size:13px;font-weight:600;color:#1a1a2e;white-space:nowrap;transition:all .25s\"><\/p>\n<div style=\"width:14px;height:14px;flex-shrink:0;background:linear-gradient(135deg,#4A6741 25%,#6B8E23 25%,#6B8E23 50%,#556B2F 50%,#556B2F 75%,#8B9D77 75%);background-size:8px 8px\"><\/div>\n<p><span class=\"def-label\">Wartime RAF Operations<\/span><span class=\"def-check\" style=\"font-size:10px;opacity:1;transition:opacity .2s\">&#10003;<\/span><\/button><button class=\"def-toggle active\" data-cat=\"current\" data-full=\"Secondary Roles &#038; Other Users\" data-short=\"Roles\" style=\"display:flex;align-items:center;gap:6px;padding:8px 12px;border:2px solid #555;border-radius:0;background:#fff;cursor:pointer;font-family:inherit;font-size:13px;font-weight:600;color:#1a1a2e;white-space:nowrap;transition:all .25s\"><\/p>\n<div style=\"width:14px;height:14px;flex-shrink:0;background:#555\"><\/div>\n<p><span class=\"def-label\">Secondary Roles &#038; Other Users<\/span><span class=\"def-check\" style=\"font-size:10px;opacity:1;transition:opacity .2s\">&#10003;<\/span><\/button><button class=\"def-toggle active\" data-cat=\"former\" data-full=\"Surviving Airframes &#038; Replicas\" data-short=\"Survivors\" style=\"display:flex;align-items:center;gap:6px;padding:8px 12px;border:2px solid #bbb;border-radius:0;background:#fff;cursor:pointer;font-family:inherit;font-size:13px;font-weight:600;color:#1a1a2e;white-space:nowrap;transition:all .25s\"><\/p>\n<div style=\"width:14px;height:14px;flex-shrink:0;background:#C0C0C0\"><\/div>\n<p><span class=\"def-label\">Surviving Airframes &#038; Replicas<\/span><span class=\"def-check\" style=\"font-size:10px;opacity:1;transition:opacity .2s\">&#10003;<\/span><\/button><\/div>\n<div id=\"def-count\" style=\"text-align:left;font-size:14px;color:#666;margin-top:12px;line-height:1.7;width:100%\"><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p><script src=\"https:\/\/cdnjs.cloudflare.com\/ajax\/libs\/d3\/7.8.5\/d3.min.js\"><\/script><script src=\"https:\/\/cdnjs.cloudflare.com\/ajax\/libs\/topojson\/3.0.2\/topojson.min.js\"><\/script><script src=\"https:\/\/cdn.jsdelivr.net\/npm\/d3-geo-projection@4\/dist\/d3-geo-projection.min.js\"><\/script><div id=\"def-data\" data-js=\"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\"><\/div>\n<p><script>(function(){var el=document.getElementById(\"def-data\");var js=decodeURIComponent(escape(atob(el.getAttribute(\"data-js\"))));var sc=document.createElement(\"script\");sc.text=js;document.body.appendChild(sc);})();<\/script><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"sec\">\n<div class=\"wrap\">\n<p class=\"kicker\">By the Numbers<\/p>\n<h2>The Boulton Paul Defiant by the numbers<\/h2>\n<p class=\"lead\" style=\"margin-bottom:26px\">A short, honest summary of what the Defiant was \u2014 and what its concept cost. The figures capture both halves of the story: a large production run, a catastrophic day-fighter engagement, and the extreme rarity of what survives.<\/p>\n<div class=\"combat\">\n<div class=\"cstat\"><b>~1,064<\/b><span>Defiants built (figures vary)<\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"cstat\"><b>6 \/ 9<\/b><span>No. 141 Sqn Defiants lost, 19 July 1940<\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"cstat\"><b>1<\/b><span>Original Defiant surviving today<\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"cstat\"><b>0<\/b><span>Airworthy Defiants in the world<\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"sec\" style=\"background:#f6f8fb\">\n<div class=\"wrap\">\n<p class=\"kicker\">Combat Record<\/p>\n<h2>The Boulton Paul Defiant\u2019s war, in context<\/h2>\n<div class=\"story\">\n<p>The Defiant\u2019s combat record falls into two utterly different halves, and it is impossible to understand the aircraft without holding both in view at once. In daylight, over roughly four months in 1940, it was one of the most costly aircraft in which an RAF crew could fly. At night, over the following winter, it was one of the most effective.<\/p>\n<p>The daylight story is quickly told. Over Dunkirk in late May, No. 264 Squadron\u2019s turret fighters inflicted a genuine shock on German fighter pilots who attacked from astern and met four guns firing back. But the surprise could not be repeated. Once the Luftwaffe understood the type, it attacked from head-on and below, and the Defiant\u2019s lack of forward guns and inferior performance turned every engagement against it. The mauling of No. 141 Squadron on 19 July, and further heavy losses to No. 264 in August, settled the matter: the aircraft was withdrawn from daylight fighting.<\/p>\n<p>The night story is the redemption. Withdrawn from the daylight battle, Defiant squadrons re-equipped for night defence and, through the Blitz of 1940\u201341, destroyed German bombers in numbers that for a time exceeded those of any other RAF fighter. The very turret that had been a liability by day became an asset in the dark, letting a gunner fire up into a bomber the pilot was shadowing from below.<\/p>\n<p>Set against the Hurricane and Spitfire, the Defiant will always look like a failure, and as a day fighter it was. But its full record \u2014 a brief, bloody daylight career followed by real success at night and years of valuable support work \u2014 is more interesting, and more honest, than the caricature of \u201cthe worst fighter of the war.\u201d<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"sec\" style=\"background:#f6f8fb\">\n<div class=\"wrap\">\n<p class=\"kicker\">Where to See One<\/p>\n<h2>Surviving Boulton Paul Defiants<\/h2>\n<p class=\"lead\" style=\"margin-bottom:24px\">The Defiant is one of the rarest of all RAF fighters \u2014 a single original survives, alongside a full-scale replica, and none can fly.<\/p>\n<div class=\"cards\">\n<div class=\"card\">\n<div class=\"n\">01<\/div>\n<h3>RAF Museum Midlands (Cosford)<\/h3>\n<p style=\"font-size:14.5px;color:#5C91FF;margin:0 0 8px\"><b>Defiant Mk I N1671.<\/b> The sole surviving intact original Defiant is displayed at the Royal Air Force Museum at Cosford. It served with No. 307 (Polish) Squadron as a night fighter before being preserved \u2014 a static exhibit, not a flyable aircraft.<\/p>\n<p>Restored over many years, N1671 is the closest anyone can get to a genuine Boulton Paul Defiant today.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"card\">\n<div class=\"n\">02<\/div>\n<h3>Boulton Paul Association, Wolverhampton<\/h3>\n<p style=\"font-size:14.5px;color:#5C91FF;margin:0 0 8px\"><b>Full-scale replica.<\/b> At the aircraft\u2019s birthplace, the Boulton Paul Association preserves the company\u2019s heritage and displays a full-scale Defiant replica, keeping alive the story of the turret fighter built in Wolverhampton.<\/p>\n<p>The Association is the custodian of the memory of Boulton Paul Aircraft and its most famous product.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"card\">\n<div class=\"n\">03<\/div>\n<h3>No airworthy example \u2014 anywhere<\/h3>\n<p style=\"font-size:14.5px;color:#5C91FF;margin:0 0 8px\"><b>None flies.<\/b> Unlike the Spitfire or Hurricane, no Defiant is airworthy anywhere in the world, so it cannot be seen flying and cannot be flown in.<\/p>\n<p>If you want to fly in a real military aircraft, MiGFlug can arrange it in other types \u2014 see <a href=\"https:\/\/migflug.com\/flights-prices\/\">migflug.com\/flights-prices\/<\/a>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"sec\" style=\"background:#f6f8fb\" id=\"faq\">\n<div class=\"wrap\">\n<p class=\"kicker\">Questions &amp; Answers<\/p>\n<h2>Boulton Paul Defiant: your questions answered<\/h2>\n<div class=\"faq\">\n<details class=\"qa\" open=\"\">\n<summary>Can I fly in a Boulton Paul Defiant?<\/summary>\n<div class=\"a\">\n<p>No \u2014 it is not possible to fly in a Boulton Paul Defiant. No Defiant is airworthy anywhere in the world. Only one original survives, the Mk I N1671 at the RAF Museum Midlands (Cosford), and it is a static museum exhibit; there is also a full-scale replica at the Boulton Paul Association in Wolverhampton. Neither can be flown, and MiGFlug does not offer Defiant flights.<\/p>\n<p>You can, however, fly in a genuine military aircraft with MiGFlug \u2014 from the L-39 Albatros jet trainer to the supersonic MiG-29 Fulcrum. See <a href=\"https:\/\/migflug.com\/flights-prices\/\">migflug.com\/flights-prices\/<\/a> for what is bookable today.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/details>\n<details class=\"qa\">\n<summary>Why did the Boulton Paul Defiant have no forward-firing guns?<\/summary>\n<div class=\"a\">\n<p>The Defiant was built to Air Ministry Specification F.9\/35 as a \u201cturret fighter,\u201d whose entire armament \u2014 four .303 in Browning machine guns \u2014 was concentrated in a power-operated dorsal turret aimed by a second crewman. Pre-war doctrine expected unescorted bombers to be the main threat and believed a trainable turret would be more effective than fixed guns. The pilot flew the aircraft into position and the gunner did the shooting.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/details>\n<details class=\"qa\">\n<summary>How fast was the Boulton Paul Defiant?<\/summary>\n<div class=\"a\">\n<p>The Defiant Mk I had a top speed of about 304 mph (489 km\/h), and the later Mk II around 313 mph (504 km\/h). That made it noticeably slower than a Hurricane or Spitfire, because the single Rolls-Royce Merlin had to carry the weight of the turret, its hydraulics and a second crewman.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/details>\n<details class=\"qa\">\n<summary>Was the Boulton Paul Defiant a good aircraft?<\/summary>\n<div class=\"a\">\n<p>It was well built but fundamentally mismatched to daylight fighter combat. The turret-fighter concept failed against agile single-seat fighters that could attack from head-on or below, where the Defiant had no guns \u2014 and it suffered heavy day-fighter losses in 1940. As a night fighter during the Blitz, however, it was genuinely effective, and it went on to serve usefully as a target tug, in air-sea rescue and in radar-jamming roles.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/details>\n<details class=\"qa\">\n<summary>Why was the Defiant successful at night but not by day?<\/summary>\n<div class=\"a\">\n<p>By day, an enemy fighter could exploit the Defiant\u2019s lack of forward guns and its poor performance, attacking from angles it could not defend. At night the fighting was completely different: the Defiant could stalk a bomber, slide beneath it and let the gunner fire upward into its belly. That made the trainable turret an asset, and for part of the winter of 1940\u201341 the Defiant claimed more night victories than any other RAF type.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/details>\n<details class=\"qa\">\n<summary>How many Boulton Paul Defiants were built, and how many survive?<\/summary>\n<div class=\"a\">\n<p>About 1,064 Defiants of all marks were built, although sources vary slightly. Today just one original survives intact \u2014 Mk I N1671 at the RAF Museum Midlands (Cosford) \u2014 together with a full-scale replica at the Boulton Paul Association in Wolverhampton. No Defiant is airworthy.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/details>\n<details class=\"qa\">\n<summary>What engine did the Boulton Paul Defiant use?<\/summary>\n<div class=\"a\">\n<p>Every Defiant was powered by a single Rolls-Royce Merlin, the same family of V12 engines that powered the Hurricane and Spitfire. The Mk I used the Merlin III of about 1,030 hp; the Mk II adopted the more powerful Merlin XX of roughly 1,280 hp to improve its performance as a night fighter.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/details>\n<details class=\"qa\">\n<summary>Where can I see a Boulton Paul Defiant today?<\/summary>\n<div class=\"a\">\n<p>The one surviving original Defiant, Mk I N1671, is on public display at the Royal Air Force Museum Midlands at Cosford in Shropshire. It is a static exhibit and does not fly.<\/p>\n<p>There is also a full-scale Defiant replica at the Boulton Paul Association in Wolverhampton, on the site where the aircraft was built. No airworthy Defiant exists anywhere in the world.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/details>\n<details class=\"qa\">\n<summary>What roles did the Boulton Paul Defiant serve in besides day fighting?<\/summary>\n<div class=\"a\">\n<p>After its day-fighter career ended in 1940, the Defiant became an effective night fighter during the Blitz of 1940\u201341, later fitted with airborne interception radar. As newer night fighters replaced it, large numbers served as target tugs \u2014 the type\u2019s most numerous role \u2014 as well as in air-sea rescue and in early electronic-countermeasures work jamming and spoofing German radar under the codenames \u201cMoonshine\u201d and \u201cMandrel.\u201d<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/details>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p><script type=\"application\/ld+json\">{\"@context\":\"https:\/\/schema.org\",\"@type\":\"FAQPage\",\"mainEntity\":[{\"@type\":\"Question\",\"name\":\"Can I fly in a Boulton Paul Defiant?\",\"acceptedAnswer\":{\"@type\":\"Answer\",\"text\":\"No \u2014 it is not possible to fly in a Boulton Paul Defiant. No Defiant is airworthy anywhere in the world. Only one original survives, the Mk I N1671 at the RAF Museum Midlands (Cosford), and it is a static museum exhibit; there is also a full-scale replica at the Boulton Paul Association in Wolverhampton. Neither can be flown, and MiGFlug does not offer Defiant flights. You can, however, fly in a genuine military aircraft with MiGFlug \u2014 from the L-39 Albatros jet trainer to the supersonic MiG-29 Fulcrum. See migflug.com\/flights-prices\/ for what is bookable today.\"}},{\"@type\":\"Question\",\"name\":\"Why did the Boulton Paul Defiant have no forward-firing guns?\",\"acceptedAnswer\":{\"@type\":\"Answer\",\"text\":\"The Defiant was built to Air Ministry Specification F.9\/35 as a \u201cturret fighter,\u201d whose entire armament \u2014 four .303 in Browning machine guns \u2014 was concentrated in a power-operated dorsal turret aimed by a second crewman. Pre-war doctrine expected unescorted bombers to be the main threat and believed a trainable turret would be more effective than fixed guns. The pilot flew the aircraft into position and the gunner did the shooting.\"}},{\"@type\":\"Question\",\"name\":\"How fast was the Boulton Paul Defiant?\",\"acceptedAnswer\":{\"@type\":\"Answer\",\"text\":\"The Defiant Mk I had a top speed of about 304 mph (489 km\/h), and the later Mk II around 313 mph (504 km\/h). That made it noticeably slower than a Hurricane or Spitfire, because the single Rolls-Royce Merlin had to carry the weight of the turret, its hydraulics and a second crewman.\"}},{\"@type\":\"Question\",\"name\":\"Was the Boulton Paul Defiant a good aircraft?\",\"acceptedAnswer\":{\"@type\":\"Answer\",\"text\":\"It was well built but fundamentally mismatched to daylight fighter combat. The turret-fighter concept failed against agile single-seat fighters that could attack from head-on or below, where the Defiant had no guns \u2014 and it suffered heavy day-fighter losses in 1940. As a night fighter during the Blitz, however, it was genuinely effective, and it went on to serve usefully as a target tug, in air-sea rescue and in radar-jamming roles.\"}},{\"@type\":\"Question\",\"name\":\"Why was the Defiant successful at night but not by day?\",\"acceptedAnswer\":{\"@type\":\"Answer\",\"text\":\"By day, an enemy fighter could exploit the Defiant\u2019s lack of forward guns and its poor performance, attacking from angles it could not defend. At night the fighting was completely different: the Defiant could stalk a bomber, slide beneath it and let the gunner fire upward into its belly. That made the trainable turret an asset, and for part of the winter of 1940\u201341 the Defiant claimed more night victories than any other RAF type.\"}},{\"@type\":\"Question\",\"name\":\"How many Boulton Paul Defiants were built, and how many survive?\",\"acceptedAnswer\":{\"@type\":\"Answer\",\"text\":\"About 1,064 Defiants of all marks were built, although sources vary slightly. Today just one original survives intact \u2014 Mk I N1671 at the RAF Museum Midlands (Cosford) \u2014 together with a full-scale replica at the Boulton Paul Association in Wolverhampton. No Defiant is airworthy.\"}},{\"@type\":\"Question\",\"name\":\"What engine did the Boulton Paul Defiant use?\",\"acceptedAnswer\":{\"@type\":\"Answer\",\"text\":\"Every Defiant was powered by a single Rolls-Royce Merlin, the same family of V12 engines that powered the Hurricane and Spitfire. The Mk I used the Merlin III of about 1,030 hp; the Mk II adopted the more powerful Merlin XX of roughly 1,280 hp to improve its performance as a night fighter.\"}},{\"@type\":\"Question\",\"name\":\"Where can I see a Boulton Paul Defiant today?\",\"acceptedAnswer\":{\"@type\":\"Answer\",\"text\":\"The one surviving original Defiant, Mk I N1671, is on public display at the Royal Air Force Museum Midlands at Cosford in Shropshire. It is a static exhibit and does not fly. There is also a full-scale Defiant replica at the Boulton Paul Association in Wolverhampton, on the site where the aircraft was built. No airworthy Defiant exists anywhere in the world.\"}},{\"@type\":\"Question\",\"name\":\"What roles did the Boulton Paul Defiant serve in besides day fighting?\",\"acceptedAnswer\":{\"@type\":\"Answer\",\"text\":\"After its day-fighter career ended in 1940, the Defiant became an effective night fighter during the Blitz of 1940\u201341, later fitted with airborne interception radar. As newer night fighters replaced it, large numbers served as target tugs \u2014 the type\u2019s most numerous role \u2014 as well as in air-sea rescue and in early electronic-countermeasures work jamming and spoofing German radar under the codenames \u201cMoonshine\u201d and \u201cMandrel.\u201d\"}}]}<\/script><div class=\"cta\">\n<div class=\"wrap\">\n<h2>You can\u2019t fly the Boulton Paul Defiant. These, you can.<\/h2>\n<p>The Defiant is a museum piece \u2014 no example flies anywhere in the world. But the thrill of flying a real military aircraft is not out of reach. MiGFlug puts you in the cockpit of genuine jets, from trainers to supersonic fighters.<\/p>\n<div class=\"ctacar\">\n<div class=\"ctacard\">\n<div style=\"height:6px;background:#5C91FF\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"cc\">\n<h3>Fighter Jet Flights<\/h3>\n<p>Take the controls of a real ex-military jet with an experienced fighter pilot.<\/p>\n<p><a class=\"ctabtn\" href=\"https:\/\/migflug.com\/flights-prices\/\">See flights &amp; prices<\/a><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"ctacard\">\n<div style=\"height:6px;background:#5C91FF\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"cc\">\n<h3>L-39 Albatros<\/h3>\n<p>The classic jet trainer \u2014 aerobatics and low-level fun, in several countries.<\/p>\n<p><a class=\"ctabtn\" href=\"https:\/\/migflug.com\/flights-prices\/\">See flights &amp; prices<\/a><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"ctacard\">\n<div style=\"height:6px;background:#5C91FF\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"cc\">\n<h3>MiG-29 Fulcrum<\/h3>\n<p>Ride a genuine air-superiority fighter toward the edge of space.<\/p>\n<p><a class=\"ctabtn\" href=\"https:\/\/migflug.com\/flights-prices\/\">See flights &amp; prices<\/a><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"ctacard\">\n<div style=\"height:6px;background:#5C91FF\"><\/div>\n<div class=\"cc\">\n<h3>Supersonic experiences<\/h3>\n<p>Break the sound barrier in a real military jet.<\/p>\n<p><a class=\"ctabtn\" href=\"https:\/\/migflug.com\/flights-prices\/\">See flights &amp; prices<\/a><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"sec\">\n<div class=\"wrap\">\n<p class=\"kicker\">Related Aircraft<\/p>\n<h2>More from the Aircraft Museum<\/h2>\n<div class=\"relgrid\"><a class=\"relcard\" href=\"https:\/\/migflug.com\/aircraft\/hawker-hurricane\/\"><img data-opt-id=1801940091  data-opt-src=\"https:\/\/ml5psubhxdln.i.optimole.com\/cb:78--.b845\/w:auto\/h:auto\/q:96\/f:best\/https:\/\/migflug.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/hawker-hurricane-mk-i-egypt-1940.jpg\"  decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20viewBox%3D%220%200%20100%%20100%%22%20width%3D%22100%%22%20height%3D%22100%%22%20xmlns%3D%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2Fsvg%22%3E%3Crect%20width%3D%22100%%22%20height%3D%22100%%22%20fill%3D%22transparent%22%2F%3E%3C%2Fsvg%3E\" alt=\"Hawker Hurricane\"><span class=\"rc\"><span class=\"rt\">Hawker Hurricane<\/span><span class=\"rd\">The RAF fighter that won the Battle of Britain \u2014 and the type the Defiant was so often mistaken for.<\/span><\/span><\/a><a class=\"relcard\" href=\"https:\/\/migflug.com\/aircraft\/supermarine-spitfire\/\"><img data-opt-id=1549212141  data-opt-src=\"https:\/\/ml5psubhxdln.i.optimole.com\/cb:78--.b845\/w:auto\/h:auto\/q:96\/f:best\/https:\/\/migflug.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/07\/supermarine-spitfire-in-flight-planform.jpg\"  decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20viewBox%3D%220%200%20100%%20100%%22%20width%3D%22100%%22%20height%3D%22100%%22%20xmlns%3D%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2Fsvg%22%3E%3Crect%20width%3D%22100%%22%20height%3D%22100%%22%20fill%3D%22transparent%22%2F%3E%3C%2Fsvg%3E\" alt=\"Supermarine Spitfire\"><span class=\"rc\"><span class=\"rt\">Supermarine Spitfire<\/span><span class=\"rd\">Britain\u2019s iconic single-seat fighter \u2014 everything the turret fighter was not.<\/span><\/span><\/a><a class=\"relcard\" href=\"https:\/\/migflug.com\/aircraft\/bristol-blenheim\/\"><img data-opt-id=1533208404  data-opt-src=\"https:\/\/ml5psubhxdln.i.optimole.com\/cb:78--.b845\/w:auto\/h:auto\/q:96\/f:best\/https:\/\/migflug.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/08\/bristol-blenheim-raf-wyton-bomber-command.jpg\"  decoding=\"async\" src=\"data:image/svg+xml,%3Csvg%20viewBox%3D%220%200%20100%%20100%%22%20width%3D%22100%%22%20height%3D%22100%%22%20xmlns%3D%22http%3A%2F%2Fwww.w3.org%2F2000%2Fsvg%22%3E%3Crect%20width%3D%22100%%22%20height%3D%22100%%22%20fill%3D%22transparent%22%2F%3E%3C%2Fsvg%3E\" alt=\"Bristol Blenheim\"><span class=\"rc\"><span class=\"rt\">Bristol Blenheim<\/span><span class=\"rd\">The fast bomber whose Mk IF fighter version shared the Defiant\u2019s hard early-war lessons.<\/span><\/span><\/a><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"sec\">\n<div class=\"wrap\">\n<p class=\"kicker\">Legacy<\/p>\n<h2>How the Boulton Paul Defiant is remembered<\/h2>\n<div class=\"story\">\n<p>The Defiant occupies an unusual place in aviation memory. It is famous less for what it achieved than for what it represents: the moment a confident pre-war idea about air combat collided with reality, and lost. For that reason it is often held up as a cautionary tale \u2014 the fighter that could not shoot forwards \u2014 even by people who know little else about it.<\/p>\n<p>Yet those who look closer usually come away with more respect for it. The airframe was sound, the turret was a genuine feat of engineering, and the crews who flew it in daylight showed extraordinary courage in an aircraft they must have known was outmatched. When it was given a role that suited it, at night, it delivered. Its later years of target-towing, air-sea rescue and radar-jamming saved lives and trained gunners long after its fighting days ended.<\/p>\n<p>Today the Boulton Paul Defiant survives as a single static airframe at Cosford and a replica at Wolverhampton, with no example anywhere able to fly. That rarity is part of why it belongs in a museum, and why its story deserves to be told in full rather than reduced to a punchline. It is the story of a brave answer to the wrong question \u2014 and of the men who made the best of it.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"sec\" style=\"background:#f6f8fb\">\n<div class=\"wrap\">\n<p class=\"kicker\">Sources &amp; Further Reading<\/p>\n<h2>Where this page\u2019s facts come from<\/h2>\n<div class=\"srcgrid\">\n<div class=\"srcitem\"><b>Royal Air Force Museum<\/b> <span>History, the surviving Defiant N1671 and the type\u2019s service record.<\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"srcitem\"><b>Imperial War Museums (IWM)<\/b> <span>Photographs and collection records for the Defiant and RAF fighter squadrons.<\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"srcitem\"><b>Boulton Paul Association, Wolverhampton<\/b> <span>The manufacturer\u2019s heritage, the Type A turret and the full-scale Defiant replica.<\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"srcitem\"><b>Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum<\/b> <span>Context on the turret-fighter concept and inter-war fighter development.<\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"srcitem\"><b>Alec Brew, \u201cThe Turret Fighters: Defiant and Roc\u201d<\/b> <span>Standard monograph on the Defiant and its turret-fighter contemporary.<\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"srcitem\"><b>Alec Brew, \u201cBoulton Paul Aircraft since 1915\u201d<\/b> <span>Company history covering the Defiant\u2019s design and production.<\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"srcitem\"><b>William Green, \u201cWarplanes of the Second World War\u201d<\/b> <span>Widely used reference for specifications and variants.<\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"srcitem\"><b>The National Archives (Air Ministry records)<\/b> <span>Specification F.9\/35 and RAF operational record books.<\/span><\/div>\n<div class=\"srcitem\"><b>MiGFlug Afterburner magazine<\/b> <span>Feature on the Boulton Paul Defiant and the turret-fighter idea.<\/span><\/div>\n<\/div>\n<p class=\"fnote\">Figures for speed, weights, production and losses are drawn from the museum and reference sources above; where sources differ, values are given as approximate and marked as estimates. Photographs are from Wikimedia Commons and are credited individually in the gallery.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Aircraft Museum \u203a Boulton Paul Defiant Boulton Paul Defiant The RAF\u2019s turret fighter with no forward guns \u2014 lethal from astern, defenceless head-on, and reborn as one of the deadliest night fighters of the Blitz. 489 km\/hTop speed (Mk I) ~1,064Defiants built 4.303 guns, all in the turret 0Fixed forward-firing guns Role Turret fighter \/ [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":20881,"parent":15960,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"editor_notices":[],"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-20888","page","type-page","status-publish","has-post-thumbnail","hentry"],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO plugin v28.3 - https:\/\/yoast.com\/product\/yoast-seo-wordpress\/ -->\n<title>Boulton Paul Defiant \u2014 History, Specs, Photos &amp; Stories<\/title>\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"The Boulton Paul Defiant: a WWII RAF turret fighter with no forward guns \u2014 a day-fighter failure reborn as a deadly Blitz night fighter.\" \/>\n<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"index, follow, max-snippet:-1, max-image-preview:large, max-video-preview:-1\" \/>\n<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/migflug.com\/es\/aeronave\/boulton-paul-defiant\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"es_ES\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"Boulton Paul Defiant \u2014 History, Specs, Photos &amp; Stories\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"The Boulton Paul Defiant: a WWII RAF turret fighter with no forward guns \u2014 a day-fighter failure reborn as a deadly Blitz night fighter.\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:url\" content=\"https:\/\/migflug.com\/es\/aeronave\/boulton-paul-defiant\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:site_name\" content=\"MiGFlug\" \/>\n<meta property=\"article:publisher\" content=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/MiGFlug\/\" \/>\n<meta property=\"og:image\" content=\"https:\/\/ml5psubhxdln.i.optimole.com\/cb:78--.b845\/w:auto\/h:auto\/q:96\/f:best\/https:\/\/migflug.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/08\/boulton-paul-defiant-264-squadron-turret-fighter.jpg\" \/>\n\t<meta property=\"og:image:width\" content=\"1920\" \/>\n\t<meta property=\"og:image:height\" content=\"1246\" \/>\n\t<meta property=\"og:image:type\" content=\"image\/jpeg\" \/>\n<meta name=\"twitter:card\" content=\"summary_large_image\" \/>\n<meta name=\"twitter:site\" content=\"@migflug\" \/>\n<meta name=\"twitter:label1\" content=\"Tiempo de lectura\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"twitter:data1\" content=\"49 minutos\" \/>\n<script type=\"application\/ld+json\" class=\"yoast-schema-graph\">{\"@context\":\"https:\\\/\\\/schema.org\",\"@graph\":[{\"@type\":\"WebPage\",\"@id\":\"https:\\\/\\\/migflug.com\\\/aircraft\\\/boulton-paul-defiant\\\/\",\"url\":\"https:\\\/\\\/migflug.com\\\/aircraft\\\/boulton-paul-defiant\\\/\",\"name\":\"Boulton Paul Defiant \u2014 History, Specs, Photos & Stories\",\"isPartOf\":{\"@id\":\"https:\\\/\\\/migflug.com\\\/#website\"},\"primaryImageOfPage\":{\"@id\":\"https:\\\/\\\/migflug.com\\\/aircraft\\\/boulton-paul-defiant\\\/#primaryimage\"},\"image\":{\"@id\":\"https:\\\/\\\/migflug.com\\\/aircraft\\\/boulton-paul-defiant\\\/#primaryimage\"},\"thumbnailUrl\":\"https:\\/\\/migflug.com\\/wp-content\\/uploads\\/2026\\/08\\/boulton-paul-defiant-264-squadron-turret-fighter.jpg\",\"datePublished\":\"2026-08-10T12:27:45+00:00\",\"description\":\"The Boulton Paul Defiant: a WWII RAF turret fighter with no forward guns \u2014 a day-fighter failure reborn as a deadly Blitz night fighter.\",\"breadcrumb\":{\"@id\":\"https:\\\/\\\/migflug.com\\\/aircraft\\\/boulton-paul-defiant\\\/#breadcrumb\"},\"inLanguage\":\"es\",\"potentialAction\":[{\"@type\":\"ReadAction\",\"target\":[\"https:\\\/\\\/migflug.com\\\/aircraft\\\/boulton-paul-defiant\\\/\"]}]},{\"@type\":\"ImageObject\",\"inLanguage\":\"es\",\"@id\":\"https:\\\/\\\/migflug.com\\\/aircraft\\\/boulton-paul-defiant\\\/#primaryimage\",\"url\":\"https:\\/\\/migflug.com\\/wp-content\\/uploads\\/2026\\/08\\/boulton-paul-defiant-264-squadron-turret-fighter.jpg\",\"contentUrl\":\"https:\\/\\/migflug.com\\/wp-content\\/uploads\\/2026\\/08\\/boulton-paul-defiant-264-squadron-turret-fighter.jpg\",\"width\":1920,\"height\":1246,\"caption\":\"No. 264 Squadron Defiant Mk Is at Kirton-in-Lindsey. Photo: B. J. Daventry, RAF official photographer \\\/ IWM. Public domain.\"},{\"@type\":\"BreadcrumbList\",\"@id\":\"https:\\\/\\\/migflug.com\\\/aircraft\\\/boulton-paul-defiant\\\/#breadcrumb\",\"itemListElement\":[{\"@type\":\"ListItem\",\"position\":1,\"name\":\"Startseite\",\"item\":\"https:\\\/\\\/migflug.com\\\/\"},{\"@type\":\"ListItem\",\"position\":2,\"name\":\"Book of Beasts \u2014 The Big Military Aircraft Encyclopedia\",\"item\":\"https:\\\/\\\/migflug.com\\\/aircraft\\\/\"},{\"@type\":\"ListItem\",\"position\":3,\"name\":\"Boulton Paul Defiant \u2014 History, Specs, Photos &#038; Stories\"}]},{\"@type\":\"WebSite\",\"@id\":\"https:\\\/\\\/migflug.com\\\/#website\",\"url\":\"https:\\\/\\\/migflug.com\\\/\",\"name\":\"MiGFlug\",\"description\":\"Fly a Jet Fighter Yourself\",\"publisher\":{\"@id\":\"https:\\\/\\\/migflug.com\\\/#organization\"},\"potentialAction\":[{\"@type\":\"SearchAction\",\"target\":{\"@type\":\"EntryPoint\",\"urlTemplate\":\"https:\\\/\\\/migflug.com\\\/?s={search_term_string}\"},\"query-input\":{\"@type\":\"PropertyValueSpecification\",\"valueRequired\":true,\"valueName\":\"search_term_string\"}}],\"inLanguage\":\"es\"},{\"@type\":\"Organization\",\"@id\":\"https:\\\/\\\/migflug.com\\\/#organization\",\"name\":\"MiGFlug GmbH\",\"url\":\"https:\\\/\\\/migflug.com\\\/\",\"logo\":{\"@type\":\"ImageObject\",\"inLanguage\":\"es\",\"@id\":\"https:\\\/\\\/migflug.com\\\/#\\\/schema\\\/logo\\\/image\\\/\",\"url\":\"https:\\/\\/migflug.com\\/wp-content\\/uploads\\/2018\\/10\\/logo-migflug-blue.png\",\"contentUrl\":\"https:\\/\\/migflug.com\\/wp-content\\/uploads\\/2018\\/10\\/logo-migflug-blue.png\",\"width\":200,\"height\":100,\"caption\":\"MiGFlug GmbH\"},\"image\":{\"@id\":\"https:\\\/\\\/migflug.com\\\/#\\\/schema\\\/logo\\\/image\\\/\"},\"sameAs\":[\"https:\\\/\\\/www.facebook.com\\\/MiGFlug\\\/\",\"https:\\\/\\\/x.com\\\/migflug\",\"https:\\\/\\\/www.instagram.com\\\/migflug\\\/\",\"https:\\\/\\\/www.youtube.com\\\/user\\\/MiGFlug\",\"https:\\\/\\\/www.linkedin.com\\\/company\\\/migflug.com\\\/\",\"https:\\\/\\\/www.pinterest.ch\\\/migflug\\\/\"]}]}<\/script>\n<!-- \/ Yoast SEO plugin. -->","yoast_head_json":{"title":"Boulton Paul Defiant \u2014 History, Specs, Photos & Stories","description":"The Boulton Paul Defiant: a WWII RAF turret fighter with no forward guns \u2014 a day-fighter failure reborn as a deadly Blitz night fighter.","robots":{"index":"index","follow":"follow","max-snippet":"max-snippet:-1","max-image-preview":"max-image-preview:large","max-video-preview":"max-video-preview:-1"},"canonical":"https:\/\/migflug.com\/es\/aeronave\/boulton-paul-defiant\/","og_locale":"es_ES","og_type":"article","og_title":"Boulton Paul Defiant \u2014 History, Specs, Photos & Stories","og_description":"The Boulton Paul Defiant: a WWII RAF turret fighter with no forward guns \u2014 a day-fighter failure reborn as a deadly Blitz night fighter.","og_url":"https:\/\/migflug.com\/es\/aeronave\/boulton-paul-defiant\/","og_site_name":"MiGFlug","article_publisher":"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/MiGFlug\/","og_image":[{"width":1920,"height":1246,"url":"https:\/\/ml5psubhxdln.i.optimole.com\/cb:78--.b845\/w:auto\/h:auto\/q:96\/f:best\/https:\/\/migflug.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/08\/boulton-paul-defiant-264-squadron-turret-fighter.jpg","type":"image\/jpeg"}],"twitter_card":"summary_large_image","twitter_site":"@migflug","twitter_misc":{"Tiempo de lectura":"49 minutos"},"schema":{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@graph":[{"@type":"WebPage","@id":"https:\/\/migflug.com\/aircraft\/boulton-paul-defiant\/","url":"https:\/\/migflug.com\/aircraft\/boulton-paul-defiant\/","name":"Boulton Paul Defiant \u2014 History, Specs, Photos & Stories","isPartOf":{"@id":"https:\/\/migflug.com\/#website"},"primaryImageOfPage":{"@id":"https:\/\/migflug.com\/aircraft\/boulton-paul-defiant\/#primaryimage"},"image":{"@id":"https:\/\/migflug.com\/aircraft\/boulton-paul-defiant\/#primaryimage"},"thumbnailUrl":"https:\/\/ml5psubhxdln.i.optimole.com\/cb:78--.b845\/w:auto\/h:auto\/q:96\/f:best\/https:\/\/migflug.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/08\/boulton-paul-defiant-264-squadron-turret-fighter.jpg","datePublished":"2026-08-10T12:27:45+00:00","description":"The Boulton Paul Defiant: a WWII RAF turret fighter with no forward guns \u2014 a day-fighter failure reborn as a deadly Blitz night fighter.","breadcrumb":{"@id":"https:\/\/migflug.com\/aircraft\/boulton-paul-defiant\/#breadcrumb"},"inLanguage":"es","potentialAction":[{"@type":"ReadAction","target":["https:\/\/migflug.com\/aircraft\/boulton-paul-defiant\/"]}]},{"@type":"ImageObject","inLanguage":"es","@id":"https:\/\/migflug.com\/aircraft\/boulton-paul-defiant\/#primaryimage","url":"https:\/\/ml5psubhxdln.i.optimole.com\/cb:78--.b845\/w:auto\/h:auto\/q:96\/f:best\/https:\/\/migflug.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/08\/boulton-paul-defiant-264-squadron-turret-fighter.jpg","contentUrl":"https:\/\/ml5psubhxdln.i.optimole.com\/cb:78--.b845\/w:auto\/h:auto\/q:96\/f:best\/https:\/\/migflug.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2026\/08\/boulton-paul-defiant-264-squadron-turret-fighter.jpg","width":1920,"height":1246,"caption":"No. 264 Squadron Defiant Mk Is at Kirton-in-Lindsey. Photo: B. J. Daventry, RAF official photographer \/ IWM. Public domain."},{"@type":"BreadcrumbList","@id":"https:\/\/migflug.com\/aircraft\/boulton-paul-defiant\/#breadcrumb","itemListElement":[{"@type":"ListItem","position":1,"name":"Startseite","item":"https:\/\/migflug.com\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":2,"name":"Book of Beasts \u2014 The Big Military Aircraft Encyclopedia","item":"https:\/\/migflug.com\/aircraft\/"},{"@type":"ListItem","position":3,"name":"Boulton Paul Defiant \u2014 History, Specs, Photos &#038; Stories"}]},{"@type":"WebSite","@id":"https:\/\/migflug.com\/#website","url":"https:\/\/migflug.com\/","name":"MiGFlug","description":"Vuela t\u00fa mismo un avi\u00f3n de combate","publisher":{"@id":"https:\/\/migflug.com\/#organization"},"potentialAction":[{"@type":"SearchAction","target":{"@type":"EntryPoint","urlTemplate":"https:\/\/migflug.com\/?s={search_term_string}"},"query-input":{"@type":"PropertyValueSpecification","valueRequired":true,"valueName":"search_term_string"}}],"inLanguage":"es"},{"@type":"Organization","@id":"https:\/\/migflug.com\/#organization","name":"MiGFlug GmbH","url":"https:\/\/migflug.com\/","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","inLanguage":"es","@id":"https:\/\/migflug.com\/#\/schema\/logo\/image\/","url":"https:\/\/migflug.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/10\/logo-migflug-blue.png","contentUrl":"https:\/\/migflug.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/10\/logo-migflug-blue.png","width":200,"height":100,"caption":"MiGFlug GmbH"},"image":{"@id":"https:\/\/migflug.com\/#\/schema\/logo\/image\/"},"sameAs":["https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/MiGFlug\/","https:\/\/x.com\/migflug","https:\/\/www.instagram.com\/migflug\/","https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/user\/MiGFlug","https:\/\/www.linkedin.com\/company\/migflug.com\/","https:\/\/www.pinterest.ch\/migflug\/"]}]}},"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/migflug.com\/es\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/20888","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/migflug.com\/es\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/migflug.com\/es\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/migflug.com\/es\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/migflug.com\/es\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=20888"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/migflug.com\/es\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/20888\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":20889,"href":"https:\/\/migflug.com\/es\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/20888\/revisions\/20889"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/migflug.com\/es\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/15960"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/migflug.com\/es\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/20881"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/migflug.com\/es\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=20888"}],"curies":[{"name":"gracias","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}